An Enquiry into the Origin of Honour, and the Usefulness of Christianity in War by Bernard Mandeville
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Bernard Mandeville >> An Enquiry into the Origin of Honour, and the Usefulness of Christianity in War
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AN ENQUIRY INTO THE ORIGIN OF HONOUR AND The Usefulness of
CHRISTIANITY IN WAR.
By the Author of the FABLE of the BEES.
[Bernard Mandeville]
THE PREFACE.
I take it for granted, that a Christian is not bound to believe any
Thing to have been of Divine Institution, that has not been declared
to be such in Holy Writ. Yet great Offence has been taken at an Essay,
in the First Part of the Fable of the _Bees_, call'd An Enquiry into the
Origin of Moral Virtue; notwithstanding the great Caution it is wrote
with. Since then, it is thought Criminal to surmise, that even Heathen
Virtue was of Human Invention, and the Reader, in the following
Dialogues, will find me to persist in the Opinion, that it was; I beg
his Patience to peruse what I have to say for my self on this Head,
which is all I shall trouble him with here.
The Word Morality is either synonimous with Virtue, or signifies that
Part of Philosophy, which treats of it, and teaches the Regulation of
Manners; and by the Words Moral Virtue, I mean the same Thing which I
believe Every body else does. I am likewise fully persuaded that to
govern our selves according to the Dictates of Reason, is far better
than to indulge the Passions without Stop or Controul, and
consequently that Virtue is more beneficial than Vice, not only for
the Peace and real Happiness of Society in general, but likewise for
the Temporal Felicity of every individual Member of it, abstract from
thee Consideration of a future State, I am moreover convinced, that
all wise Men ever were and ever will be of this Opinion; and I shall
never oppose Any body, who shall be pleased to call this an Eternal
Truth.
Having allow'd and own'd thus much, I beg Leave to make a short
Grammatical Reflection on the Sounds or Letters we make use of to
express this rational Management of ourselves: For tho' the Truth of
its Excellency is Eternal, the Words _Moral Virtue_ themselves are not
so, any more than Speech or Man himself. Permit me therefore to
enquire which Way it is most probably, they must have come into the
World.
The Word _Moral_, without Doubt, comes from _Mos_, and signifies every
Thing that relates to Manners: The Word _Ethick_ is synonimous with
_Moral_, and is derived from [Greek: ithik], which is exactly the same
in _Greek_, that _Mos_ is in _Latin_. The _Greek_ for Virtu, is [Greek:
arete], which is derived from [Greek: ares], the God of War and
properly signifies Martial Virtue. The same Word in _Latin_, if we
believe _Cicero_, comes from _Vir_; and the genuine Signification likewise
of the Word _Virtus_ is Fortitude. It is hardly to be conceived, but
that in the first Forming of all Societies, there must have been
Struggles for Superiority; and therefore it is reasonable to imagine,
that in all the Beginnings of Civil Government, and the Infancy of
Nations, Strength and Courage must have been the most valuable
Qualifications for some Time. This makes me think, that _Virtus_, in its
first Acceptation, might, with great Justice and Propriety, be in
_English_ render'd _Manliness_; which fully expresses the Original Meaning
of it, and shews the Etymology equally with the _Latin_; and whoever is
acquainted with that Language must know, that it was some ages before
the _Romans_ used it in any other Sense. Nay, to this Day, the Word
_Virtus_ by it self, in any of their Historians, has the same
Signification, as if the Word _Bellica_ had been added. We have Reason
to think, that, as First, Nothing was meant by _Virtus_, but Daring and
Intrepidity, right or wrong; or else if could never have been made to
signify Savageness, and brutish Courage; as _Tacitus_, in the Fourth
Book of his History, makes use of it manifestly in that Sense. Even
Wild Beasts, says he, if you keep them shut up, will lose their
Fierceness. _Etiam sera animalia, si clausa teneas, virtutis
obliviseuntur_.
What the Great Men of _Rome_ valued themselves upon was active and
passive Bravery, Warlike Virtue, which is so strongly express'd in the
Words of Livy: _Et facere & pati fortia Romanum est._ But
besides the Consideration of the great Service, All Warriours received
from this Virtue, there is a very good Reason in the Nature of the
Thing it self, why it should be in far higher Esteem than any other.
The Passion it has to struggle with, is the most violent and stubborn,
and consequently the hardest to be conquer'd, the Fear of Death: The
least Conflict with it is harsh Work, and a difficult Task; and it is
in Regard to this, that _Cicero_, in his _Offices_, calls Modesty, Justice
and Temperance, the softer and easier Virtues. _Qui virtutibus
bis lenioribus erit ornatus, modestia, justitia temperantia,_ &c.
Justice and Temperance require Professors as grave and solemnn, and
demand as much Strictness and Observance as any other Virtues. Why
_lenioribus_ then; but that they are more mild and gentle in the
Restrain they lay upon our Inclinations, and that the Self-denial they
require is more practicable and less mortifying than that of Virtue
itself, as it is taken in it proper and genuine Sense? To be Just or
Temperate, we have Temptations to encounter, and Difficulties to
surmount, that are troublesome: But the Efforts we are oblig'd to make
upon our selves to be truyly Valiant are infinitely greater; and, in
order to it, we are overcome the First, the strongest and most lasting
Passion, that has been implanted in us; for tho' we may hate and have
Aversion to many Things by Instinct, yet this is Nothing so generally
terrible, and so generally dreadful to all Creatures, rational or not
rational, as the Dissolution of their Being.
Upon due Consideration of what has been said, it will be easy to
imagine how and why, soon after Fortitude had been honoured with the
Name of Virtue, all the other Branches of Conquest over our selves
were dignify'd with the same Title. We may see in it likewise the
Reason of what I have always so strenuously insisted upon, _viz._ That
no Practice, no Action or good Quality, how useful or beneficial
soever they may be in them selves, can ever deserve the Name of
Virtue, strictly speaking, where there is not a palpable Self-denial
to be seen. In Tract of Time, the Sense of the Word _Virtus_ received
still a grated Latitude; and it signify'd Worth, Strength, Authority,
and Goodness of all Kinds: _Plautus_ makes use of it, for Assistance.
_Virtute Deūm_, by the Help of the Gods. By Degrees it was applied not
only to Brutes, _Est in juveneis, est in equis patrum Virtus_,
but likewise to Things inanimate and was made Use of to express the
Power, and peculiar Qualities of Vegetables and Minerals of all Sorts,
as it continues to be to this Day. The Virtue of the Loadstone, the
Virtue of Opium, &c. It is highly probable, that the Word _Moral_,
either in _Greek_ or _Latin_, never was thought of before the
Signification of the Word _Virtue_ had been extended so far beyond its
Original; and then in speaking of the Virtues of our Species, the
Addition of that Epithet became necessary, to denote the Relation they
had to our Manners, and distinguish them from the Properties and
Efficacy of Plants, Stones, &c. which were likewise call'd _Virtues_.
If I am wrong, I shall be glad to see a better Account, how this
Adjective and Substantive came to be join'd together. In the mean
Time, I am very sure, that this is Nothing strain'd or forc'd in my
Supposition. That the Words, in Tract of Time, are be come of greater
Importance, I don't deny. The Words _Clown_ and _Villain_ have opprobrious
Meanings annex'd to them, that were never implied in _Colonus_ and
_Villanus_, from which they were undoubtedly derived. _Moral_, for ought I
know, may now signify _Virtue_, in the same Manner and for the same
Reason, that _Panic_ signifies _Fear_.
That this Conjecture or Opinion of mine, should be detracting from the
Dignity of _Moral Virtue_, or have a Tendency to bring it into
Disrepute, I can not see. I have already own'd, that it ever was and
ever will be preferable to Vice, in the Opinion of all wise Men. But
to call Virtue it self Eternal, can not be done without a strangely
Figurative Way of Speaking. There is no Doubt, but all Mathematical
Truths are Eternal, yet they are taught; and some of them are very
abstruse, and the Knowledge of them never was acquir'd without great
Labour and Depth of Thought. _Euclid_ had his Merit; and it does not
appear that the Doctrine of the _Fluxions_ was known before Sir _Isaac
Newton_ discover'd that concise Way of Computation; and it is not
impossible that there should be another Method, as yet unknown, still
more compendious, that may not be found out these Thousand Years.
All Propositions, not confin'd to Time or Place, that are once true,
must be always so; even in the silliest and most abject Things in the
World; as for Example, It is wrong to under-roast Mutton for People
who love to have their Meat well done. The Truth of this, which is the
most trifling Thing I can readily think on, is as much Eternal, as
that of the Sublimest Virtue. If you ask me, where this Truth was,
before there was Mutton, or People to dress or eat it, I answer, in
the same Place where Chastity was, before there were any Creatures
that had an Appetite to procreate their Species. This puts me in mind
of the inconsiderate Zeal of some Men, who even in Metaphysicks, know
not how to think abstractly, and cannot forebear mixing their own
Meanness and Imbecillities, with the Idea's they form of the Supreme
Being.
There is no Virtue that has a Name, but it curbs, regulates, or
subdues some Passion that is peculiar to Humane Nature; and therefore
to say, that God has all the Virtues in the highest Perfection, wants
as much the Apology, that it is an Expression accommodated to vulgar
Capacities, as that he has Hands and Feet, and is angry. For as God
has not a Body, nor any Thing that is Corporeal belonging to his
Essence, so he is entirely free from Passions and Fralities. With what
Propriety then can we attribute any Thing to him that was invented, or
at least signifies a Strength or Ability to conquer or govern Passions
and Fralities? The Holiness of God, and all his Perfections, as well
as the Beatitude he exists in, belong to his Nature; and there is no
Virtue but what is acquired. It signifies Nothing to add, that God has
those Virtues in the highest Perfection; let them be what they will,
as to Perfection, they must still be Virtues; which, for the aforesaid
Reasons, it is impertinent to ascribe to the Diety. Our Thoughts of
God should be as worthy of him as we are able to frame them; and as
they can not be adequate to his Greatness, so they oughts at least to
be abstract from every Thing that does or can belong to silly, reptile
Man: And it is sufficient, whenever we venture to speak of a Subject
so immensly far beyond our Reach, to say, that there is a perfect and
compleat Goodness in the Divine Nature, infinitely surpassing not only
the highest Perfection, which the most virtuous Men can arrive at, but
likewise every Thing that Mortals can conceive about it.
I recommend the fore-going Paragraph to the Consideration of the
Advocates for the Eternity and Divine Original of Virtue; assuring
them, that, if I am mistaken, it is not owing to any Perverseness of
my Will, but Want of Understanding.
The Opinion, that there can be no Virtue without Self-denial, is more
advantagious to Society than the contrary Doctrine, which is a vast
Inlet to Hypocrisy, as I have shewn at large [1]: Yet I am willing to
allow, that Men may contract a Habit of Virtue, so as to practise it,
without being sensible of Self-denial, and even that they may take
Pleasure in Actions that would be impracticable to the Vicious: But
then it is manifest, that this Habit is the Work of Art, Education and
Custom; and it never was acquired, where the Conquest over the
Passions had not be already made. There is no Virtuous Man of Forty
Years, but he may remember the Conflict he had with some Appetites
before he was Twenty. How natural seem all Civilities to be a
Gentleman! Yet Time was, that he would not have made his Bow, if he
had not been bid.
[Footnote 1: Fable of the _Bees_. p. ii. P. 106.]
Whoever has read the Second Part of the Fable of the _Bees_, will see,
that in these Dialogues I make Use of the same Persons, who are the
Interlocutors there, and whose Characters have been already draw in
the Preface of that Book.
The CONTENTS OF THE FIRST DIALOGUE.
_Honour is built upon a Passion in Human Nature, for which there is no
Name_
_The Author's Reasons for Coining the Word Self-liking_
_How the Passion of Self-liking is discovered in Infants_
_A Definition of Honour, and what it is in Substance_
_The Author's Opinion illustrated by what we know of Dishonour or Shame_
_The different Symptoms of Pride and Shame in the Mechanism of Man_
_Are both the Result of the same Passion_
_The Word Honour, as it signifies a Principle of Courage and Virtue, is
of Gothick Extraction_
_All Societies of Men are perpetually in Quest after Happiness_
_The true Reason, why no Nations can be govern'd without Religion,
enquired into_
_Why no one Sort or Degree of Idolatry can be more or less absurd than
another_
_For what Purpose all Religions may be equally serviceable_
_All Men are born with the Fear of an invisible Cause_
_The Usefulness of that Fear, as to Religion_
_The Impossibility of making_ Atheism _universally received_
_Religion no Invention of Politicians_
_The Benefit expected from the Notions of Honour_
_The Reasonableness of Mens Actions examined_
_How the Strictness of the Gospel came to be first disapproved of, and
the Consequence_
_How Mens Actions may be inconsistent with their Belief_
_That many bad Christians were yet kept in Awe by the Fear of Shame,
gave the first Handle to the Invention of Honour as a Principle_
_What it is we are afraid of in the Fear of Shame_
_Why the Principle of Honour has been of more Use to Society than that
of Virtue_
_The Principle of Honour, clashing with Christianity_
_Reasons why the Church of_ Rome _endeavour'd to reconcile them_
_The real Design of_ Legends _and_ Romances
_The Stratagems of the Church of_ Rome _to enslave the Laity_
_What gave Rise to the Custom of Duelling_
The Contents of the Second Dialogue.
_Of the Principle of Honour in the fair Sex_
_The Motives of Women who turn Nuns, seldom Religious_
_Which is most serviceable to the Preservation of Chastity in Women,
Religion, or Self-liking_
_How the Notions concerning the Principle of Honour came to be commonly
received_
_The Qualifications thought Necessary in a Man of Honour_
_But Courage alone is sufficient to obtain the Title_
_When the Fashion of Duelling was at its greatest Height_
_Courts of Honour erected in_ France
_Laws of Honour made by them to prevent Duelling_
_Why those Laws were the Reverse of all others_
_The Laws of Honour introduced as speaking_
_The Effect such Laws must have on Human Nature_
_The Arguments a true Christian would make use of to dissuade Men from
Duelling_
_The Reasons why Men are despised who take Affronts without resenting
them_
_No Scarcity of Believers in Christ_
_The Principle of Honour contrary to Christianity_
_Why the Principle of Honour is of greater Efficacy upon many than
Religion_
_How Men may adore themselves_
_Equivalents for Swearing_
_A ludicrous Proposal of_ Horatio _upon the Supposition, that Honor is an
Idol_
_A Passage in the Fable of the Bees Defended_
_Satyr as little to be depended upon as Panegyrick_
_Whatever belongs to Honour or Shame, has its Foundation in the Passion
of Self-liking_
_The Church of_ Rome's _cunning in consulting and humouring Human Nature_
_Heraldry of great influence on the Passion of Self-liking_
_Of Canonizations of Saint, and the different Purposes they serve_
_The want of Foresight in the first Reformers_
_The worldly Wisdom of the Church of Rome_
_Hor. owning the Self-denial required in the Gospel in a literal Sense_
_The great Use she has made of it_
_The Analogy between the Popish Religion and a Manufacture_
_The Danger there is in explaining away the Self-denial of the Gospel_
_How the Self-denial of some may seem to be of use to others that
practise none_
_Easy Casuists can only satisfy the_ Beau Monde
_Jesuits don't, explain away Self-denial in General_
_What sort of Preachers will soonest gain Credit among the Multitude_
_Men may easily be taught to believe what is not Clashing with received
Opinions_
_The force of Education as to Self-denial_
_The Advantage the Church of Rome has made from vulgar Nations_
_Divines, who appeal to Men's Reason, ought to behave differently from
those, who teach implicite Faith._
_Why the Luxury of a Popish Clergy gives less Offence to the Laity,
than that of Protestants_
_What the Church of_ Rome _seems no to dispair of_
_The Politicks of_ Rome _more formidable than any other_
_What must always keep up the Popish Interest in_ Great-Britain
_The most probable Maxims to hinder the Growth as well as Irreligion
and Impiety as of Popery and Superstition_
_When the literal Sense of Words is to be prefer'd to the figurative_
_What the Reformers might have foreseen_
_What has been and ever will be the Fate of all Sects_
The Contents of the Third Dialog
_The Beginning of all Earthly Things was mean_
_The Reason of the high Value Men have for things in which they have
but the least Share_
_Whether the best Christians make the best Soldiers_
_Remarks on the Word_ Difference
_An excursion of_ Horatio
_Why Religious Wars are the most Cruel_
_The Pretensions of the Huguenot Army in_ France, _and that of the_
Roundheads _in England near the same_
_What was answered by their Adversaries_
_What would be the natural Consequeuce of such Differences_
_The Effect which such a Contrariety of Interests would always have on
the sober Party_
_Superstition and Enthusiasm may make Men fight, but the Doctrine of
Christ never can_
_What is required in a Soldier to be call'd virtuous and good_
_Instances where debauch'd Fellows and the greatest Rogues have fought
well_
_What is connived at in Soldiers and what not_
_Divines in Armies seldom rigid Casuists_
_How Troops may aquire the Character of being good Christians_
_Why Divines are necessary in Armies_
_Why the worst Religion is more beneficial to Society than Atheism_
_Whether Preachers of the Gospel ever made Men Fight_
_The use that may be made of the Old Testament_
_An everlasting Maxim in Politicks_
_When the Gospel is preach'd to military Men, and when it is let aside_
_Whether_ Cromwel's _Views in promoting an outward Shew of Piety were
Religious or Political_
_The Foundation of the Quarrels that occasion'd the Civil War_
_How Men who are sincere in their Religion may be made to Act contrary
to the Precept of it_
_When the Gospel ought no longer to be appeald to_
_A promise to prove what seems to be a Paradox_
_What all Priests have labour'd at in all Armies_
_The Sentiments that were instill'd into the Minds of the_ Roundheads
_The Use which it is probable, a crafty wicked General would make of a
Conjucture, as here hinted at_
_How Men may be sincere and in many Respects morally good, and bad
Christians_
_How an obsure Man might raise himself to the highest Post in an Army,
and be thought a Saint tho' he was an Atheist_
_How wicked men may be useful soldiers_
_How the most obdurate Wretch might receive benefit as a soldier from
an outward Shew of Devotion in others_
_That Men may be sincere Believers and yet lead wicked Lives_
_Few Men are wicked from a desire to be so_
_How even bad Men may be chear'd up by Preaching_
_Hyopcrites to save an outward Appearance may be as useful as Men of
Sincerity_
_There are two sorts of Hypocrites very different from one another_
The Contents of the Fourth Dialogue.
_An Objection of_ Horatio, _concerning Fast-Days_
_What War they would be useful in, if duely kept_
_How Christianity may be made serviceable to Anti-Christian Purposes_
_What is understood in_ England _by keeping a Fast-Day_
_The real Doctrine of Christ can give no Encouragement for Fighting_
_Instances, where Divines seem not to think themselves strictly tied to
the Gospel_
_The Art of Preaching in Armies_
_The Use which Politicians may make of extraordinary Days of Devotion,
abstract from all Thoughts of Religion_
_The miserable Nations, which many of the Vulgar have of Religion_
_How the Rememberance of a Fast-Day may affect a Wicked Soldier_
_The Power which Preaching may have upon ignorant Well-wishers to
Religion_
_The Days of Supplication among the Ancients_
_A general Show of Religion cannot be procured at all Times_
_What Conjuncture it is only practicable in_
_A Character of_ Oliver Cromwell
_A Spirit of Gentility introduced among Military Men_
_An improvement in the Art of Flattery_
_A Demonstration that what made the Men fight well in the late Wars was
not their Religion_
_Why no Armies could subsist without Religion_
_A Recapitulation of what has been advanced in this and the former
Dialogue_
_Horatio's Concurrence_
ERRATA Page 81. Line 6. _read_ Influence. P. 94. l. 12. r. _Proprętors_.
P. 174. l. 3. r. Rites.
The First Dialogue Between _Horatio_ and _Cleomenes_.
_Horatio_. I Wonder you never attempted to guess at the Origin of
Honour, as you have done at that of Politeness, and your Friend in his
Fable of the Bees has done at the Origin of Virtue.
Cleo. I have often thought of it, and am satisfied within my self,
that my Conjecture about it is Just; but there are Three substantial
Reasons, why I have hitherto kept it to my Self, and never yet
mention'd to any One, what my Sentiments are concerning the Origin of
that charming Sound.
Hor. Let me hear your Reasons however.
Cleo. The Word Honour, is used in such different Acceptations, is now
a Verb, then a Noun, sometimes taken for the Reward of Virtue,
sometimes for a Principle that leads to Virtue, and, at others again,
signifies Virtue it self; that it would be a very hard Task to take in
every Thing that belongs to it, and at the same Time avoid Confusion
in Treating of it. This is my First Reason. The Second is: That to set
forth and explain my Opinion on this Head to others with Perspicuity,
would take up so much Time, that few People would have the Patience to
hear it, or think it worth their while to bestow so much Attention, as
it would require, on what the greatest Part of Mankind would think
very trifling.
Hor. This Second whets my Curiosity: pray, what is your Third Reason?
Cleo. That the very Thing, to which, in my Opinion, Honour owes its
Birth, is a Passion in our Nature, for which there is no Word coin'd
yet, no Name that is commonly known and receiv'd in any Language.
Hor. That is very strange.
Cleo. Yet not less true. Do you remember what I said of Self-liking in
our Third Conversation, when I spoke of the Origin of Politeness?
Hor. I do; but you know, I hate Affectation and Singularity of all
sorts. Some Men are fond of uncouth Words of their own making, when
there are other Words already known, that sound better, and would
equally explain their Meaning: What you call'd then Self-liking at
last prov'd to be Pride, you know.
Cleo. Self-liking I have call'd that great Value, which all
Individuals set upon their own Persons; that high Esteem, which I take
all Men to be born with for themselves. I have proved from what is
constantly observ'd in Suicide, that there is such a Passion in Human
Nature, and that it is plainly [2] distinct from Self-love. When this
Self-liking is excessive, and so openly shewn as to give Offence to
others, I know very well it is counted a Vice and call'd Pride: But
when it is kept out of Sight, or is so well disguis'd as not to appear
in its own Colours, it has no Name, tho' Men act from that and no
other Principle.
[Footnote 2: Fable of the Bees, part II. p. 141]
Hor. When what you call Self-liking, that just Esteem which Men have
naturally for themselves, is moderate, and spurs them on to good
Actions, it is very laudable, and is call'd the Love of Praise or a
Desire of the Applause of others. Why can't you take up with either of
these Names?
Cleo. Because I would not confound the Effect with the Cause. That Men
are desirous of Praise, and love to be applauded by others, is the
Result, a palpable Consequence, of that Self-liking which reigns in
Human Nature, and is felt in every one's Breast before we have Time or
Capacity to reflect and think of Any body else. What Moralists have
taught us concerning the Passions, is very superficial and defective.
Their great Aim was the Publick Peace, and the Welfare of the Civil
Society; to make Men governable, and unite Multitudes in one common
Interest.
Hor. And is it possible that Men can have a more noble Aim in
Temporals?
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