The Communistic Societies of the United States by Charles Nordhoff
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Charles Nordhoff >> The Communistic Societies of the United States
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We wish to speak plainly
And use no deceit;
We like to see fragments
Left wholesome and neat:
To customs and fashions
We make no pretense;
Yet think we can tell
What belongs to good sense.
What we deem good order,
We're willing to state--
Eat hearty and decent,
And clear out our plate--
Be thankful to Heaven
For what we receive,
And not make a mixture
Or compound to leave.
We find of those bounties
Which Heaven does give,
That some live to eat,
And that some eat to live--
That some think of nothing
But pleasing the taste,
And care very little
How much they do waste.
Tho' Heaven has bless'd us
With plenty of food:
Bread, butter, and honey,
And all that is good;
We loathe to see mixtures
Where gentle folks dine,
Which scarcely look fit
For the poultry or swine.
We often find left,
On the same china dish,
Meat, apple-sauce, pickle,
Brown bread and minc'd fish;
Another's replenish'd
With butter and cheese;
With pie, cake, and toast,
Perhaps, added to these.
Now if any virtue
In this can be shown,
By peasant, by lawyer,
Or king on the throne,
We freely will forfeit
Whatever we've said,
And call it a virtue
To waste meat and bread.
Let none be offended
At what we here say;
We candidly ask you,
Is that the best way?
If not--lay such customs
And fashions aside,
And take this Monitor
Henceforth for your guide.
[VISITORS' EATING-ROOM, SHAKER VILLAGE.]
Since these chapters were written, Hervey Elkins's pamphlet, "Fifteen
Years in the Senior Order of the Shakers," printed at Hanover, New
Hampshire, in 1853, has come into my hands. Elkins gives some details
out of his own experience of Shaker life which I believe to be generally
correct, and which I quote here, as filling up some parts of the picture
I have tried to give of the Shaker polity and life:
"The spiritual orders, laws, and statutes, never to be revoked, are in
substance as follows: None are admitted within the walls of Zion, as
they denominate their religious sphere, but by a confession to one or
more incarnate witnesses of every debasing and immoral act perpetrated
by the confessor within his remembrance; also every act which, though
the laws of men may sanction, may be deemed sinful in the view of that
new and sublimer divinity which he has adopted. The time, the place, the
motive which produced and pervaded the act, the circumstances which
aggravated the case, are all to be disclosed. No stone is to be left
unturned--no filth is suffered to remain. The temple of God, or the
soul, must be carefully swept and garnished, before the new man can
enter it and there make his abode. (Christ, or the Divine Intelligence
which emanated from God the Father, transforms the soul into the new man
spoken of in the Scriptures.)
"Those who have committed deeds cognizable by the laws of the land,
shall never be admitted, until those laws have dealt with their
transgressions and acquitted them.
"Those who have in any way morally wronged a fellow-creature, shall make
restitution to the satisfaction of the person injured.
"Wives who have unbelieving husbands must not be admitted without their
husbands' consent, or until they are lawfully released from the marriage
contract, and vice versa. They may confess their sins, but cannot enter
the sacred compact.
"All children admitted shall be bound by legal indentures, and shall, if
refractory, be returned to their parents.
"There shall exist three Orders, or degrees of progression, viz.: The
Novitiate, the Junior, and the Senior.
"All adults may enter the Novitiate Order, and then may progress to a
higher, by faithfulness in supporting the Gospel requirements.
"When at the age of twenty-one, the Church Covenant is presented to all
the young members to peruse, and to deliberate and decide whether or not
they will maintain the conditions therein expressed. To older members it
is presented after all legal embarrassments upon their estates are
settled, and they desire to be admitted to full fellowship with those
who have consecrated _all._ And whoever, after having escaped the
servility of Egypt, shall again desire its taskmasters and flesh-pots,
are unfit for the kingdom of God; and in case of secession or apostasy
shall, by their own deliberate and matured act (that of placing their
signatures and seals upon this instrument when in the full possession of
all their mental powers), be debarred from legally demanding any
compensation whatever for the property or services which they had
dedicated to a holy purpose.
"This instrument is legally and skillfully formed, and none are
permitted to sign it until they have counted well the cost; or, at
least, pondered for a time upon its requirements.
"Members also stipulate themselves by this signature to yield implicit
obedience to the ministry, elders, deacons, and trustees, each in their
respective departments of authority and duty.
"The Shaker government, in many points, resembles that of the military.
All shall look for counsel and guidance to those immediately before
them, and shall receive nothing from, nor make application for any thing
to those but their immediate advisers. For instance: No elder in either
of the subordinate bishoprics can make application for any amendment,
any innovation, any introduction of a new system, of however trivial a
nature, to the ministry of the first bishopric; but he may desire and
ask of his own ministry, and, if his proposal meet their concurrence,
they will seek its sanction of those next higher. All are to regard
their spiritual leaders as mediators between God and their own souls;
and these links of divine communication, successively descending from
Power and Wisdom, who constitute the dual God, to their Son and
Daughter, Jesus and Ann, and from them to Ann's successors of the Zion
of God on earth, down to the prattling infant who may have been gathered
within this ark of safety--this concatenated system of spiritual
delegation is the river of life, whose salutary waters flow through the
celestial sphere for the cleansing and redemption of souls.
"Great humility and simplicity of life is practiced by the first
ministry--two of each sex--upon whom devolves the charge of subordinate
bishoprics, besides that of their own immediate care, the societies of
Niskeyuna and Mount Lebanon. They will not even (and this is good
policy) allow themselves those expensive conveniences of life which are
so common among the laity of their sect. But extreme neatness is the
most prominent characteristic of both them and their subordinates. They
speak much of the model enjoined by Jesus, that whosoever would be the
greatest should be the servant of all.
"A simple song, of a beautiful tune, inculcating this spirit, is often
sung in their assemblies. The words are these:
"'Whoever wants to be the highest
Must first come down to be the lowest;
And then ascend to be the highest
By keeping down to be the lowest.'
"It is common for the leaders to crowd down, by humiliation, and
withdraw patronage and attention from those whom they intend to
ultimately promote to an official station. That such may learn how it
seems to be slighted and humiliated, and how to stand upon their own
basis, work spiritually for their own food without being dandled upon
the soft lap of affection, or fed with the milk designed for babes. That
also they be not deceived by the phantoms of self-wisdom; and that they
martyr not in themselves the meek spirit of the lowly Jesus. Thus, while
holding one in contemplation for an office of care and trust, they first
prove him--the cause unknown to himself--to see how much he can bear,
without exploding by impatience or faltering under trial.
"Virtually for this purpose, but ostensibly for some other, have I known
many promising young people moved to a back order, or lower grade of
fellowship. By such trials the leaders think to try their souls in the
furnace of affliction, withdraw them from earthly attachments, and imbue
them with reliance upon God. In fact, to destroy terrestrial idols of
every kind, to dispel the clouds of inordinate affection and
concentrative love, which fascinatingly float around the mind and screen
from its view the radiant brightness of heaven and heavenly things, is
the great object of Shakerism.
"Whoever yields enough to the evil tempter to gratify in the least the
sensual passions--either in deed, word, or thought--shall confess
honestly the same to his elders ere the sun of another day shall set to
announce a day of condemnation and wrath against the guilty soul. These
vile passions are--fleshly lusts in every form, idolatry, selfishness,
envy, wrath, malice, evil-speaking, and their kindred evils.
"The Sabbath shall be kept pure and holy to that degree that no books
shall be read on that day which originated among the world's people,
save those scientific books which treat of propriety of diction. No idle
or vain stories shall be rehearsed, no unnecessary labor shall be
performed--not even the cooking of food, the ablution of the body, the
cutting of the hair, beard, or nails, the blacking and polishing of
shoes or boots. All these things must be performed on Saturday, or
postponed till the subsequent week. All fruit, eaten upon the Sabbath,
must be earned to the dwelling-house on Saturday. But the dormitories
may be arranged, the cows milked, all domestic animals fed, and food and
drink warmed on Sunday. No one is allowed to go to his workshop, to walk
in the gardens, the orchards, or on the farms, unless immediate duty
requires; and those who of necessity go to their workshops, shall not
tarry over fifteen minutes but by the direct liberty of the elders. The
dwelling-house is the place for all to spend the Sabbath; and thither
all concentrate--elders, deacons, brethren, and sisters. If any property
is likely to incur loss--as hay and grain that is cut and remaining in
the field, and is liable to be wet before Monday, it may be secured upon
the Sabbath.
"All shall rise simultaneously every morning at the signal of the bell,
and those of each room shall kneel together in silent prayer, strip from
the beds the coverlets and blankets, lighten the feathers, open the
windows to ventilate the rooms, and repair to their places of vocation.
Fifteen minutes are allowed for all to leave their sleeping apartments.
In the summer the signal for rising is heard at half-past four, in the
winter at half-past five. Breakfast is invariably one and a half hours
after rising--in the summer at six, in the winter at seven; dinner
always at twelve; supper at six. These rules are, however, slightly
modified upon the Sabbath. They rise and breakfast on this day half an
hour later, dine lightly at twelve, and sup at four. Every order
maintains the same regularity in regard to their meals.
"In the Senior Order, at the ringing of a large bell, ten minutes before
meal-time, all may gather into the saloons, and retire the ten minutes
before the dining-hall alarm summons them to the table. All enter four
doors and gently arrange themselves at their respective places at the
table, then all simultaneously kneel in silent thanks for nearly a
minute, then rise and seat themselves almost inaudibly at the table. No
talking, laughing, whispering, or blinking are allowed while thus
partaking of God's blessings. After eating, all rise together at the
signal of the first elder, kneel as before, and gently retire to their
places of vocation, without stopping in the dining-hall, loitering in
the corridors and vestibules, or lounging upon the balustrades,
doorways, and stairs.
"The tables are long, three feet in width, highly polished, without
cloth, and furnished with white ware and no tumblers. The interdict
which excludes glass-ware from the table must be attributed to
conservatism rather than parsimony, for in _most_ useful
improvements the Shakers strive to excel. They tremble at adopting the
_customs_ of the world. At the tables, each four have all the
varieties of food served for themselves, which precludes the necessity of
continual passing and reaching.
"At half-past seven P.M. in the summer, and at eight in the winter, the
large bell summons all of every order to their respective dwellings,
there to retire, each individual in his own room, half an hour before
evening worship. To retire is for the inmates of every room--generally
from four to eight individuals--to dispose themselves in either one or
two ranks, and sit erect, with their hands folded upon their laps,
without leaning back or falling asleep; and in that position labor for a
true sense of their privilege in the Zion of God--of the fact that God
has prescribed a law which humbles and keeps them within the hollow of
his hand, and has favored them with the blessing of worshiping him, with
soul and body, unmolested, and according to the dictation of an
enlightened mind and a tender and good conscience. If any chance to fall
asleep while thus mentally employed, they may rise and bow four times,
or gently shake, and then resume their seats.
"The man who is now the archbishop of Shakerism was, when a youth, very
apt to fall into a drowsy state in retiring time; but he broke up that
habit by standing erect the half-hour before every meeting for six
months. And there are many as zealous as he in supporting every order.
No unnecessary walking in the corridors or passing in and out of doors
are in this sacred time allowed. When the half-hour has expired, a small
hand-bell summons all to the hall of worship. None are allowed to
absent themselves without the elder's liberty. If any are unwell or
tired, it is but a little matter to rap at the elder's door, or ask a
companion to do it, where any one may receive liberty to retire to rest
if it is expedient. All pass the stairs and corridors, and enter the
hall, two abreast, upon tiptoe, bowing once as they enter, and pass
directly to their place in the forming ranks.
"The house, of course, is vacated through the day, except by sisters,
who take turns in cooking, making beds, and sweeping. When brethren and
sisters enter, they must uncover their heads, and hang their hats and
bonnets in the lower corridors, and walk softly, and open and shut doors
gently, and in the fear of God. None are allowed to carry money into
sacred worship. In a word, the sanctuary and the whole house shall be
kept sacred and holy unto the Lord; and all shall spend the time
allotted to be in the house mostly in their own rooms. Three evenings in
the week are set apart for worship, and three for 'union meetings.'
Monday evenings all may retire to rest at the usual meeting time, an
hour earlier than usual. For the union meetings the brethren remain in
their rooms, and the sisters, six, eight, or ten in number, enter and
sit in a rank opposite to that of the brethren's, and converse simply,
often facetiously, but rarely profoundly. In fact, to say 'agreeable
things about nothing,' when conversant with the other sex, is as common
there as elsewhere. And what of dignity or meaning could be said? where
talking of sacred subjects is not allowed, under the pretext that it
scatters those blessings which should be carefully treasured up; and
bestowing much information concerning the secular plans of economy
practiced by your own to the other sex is not approved; and where to
talk of literary matters would be termed bombastic pedantry and small
display, and would serve to exhibit accomplishments which might be
enticingly dangerous. Nevertheless, an hour passes away very agreeably
and even rapturously with those who there chance to meet with an
especial favorite; succeeded soon, however, when soft words, and kind,
concentrated looks become obvious to the jealous eye of a female
espionage, by the agonies of a separation. For the tidings of such
reciprocity, whether true or surmised, is sure before the lapse of many
hours to reach the ears of the elders; in which case, the one or the
other party would be subsequently summoned to another circle of colloquy
and union.
"No one is permitted to make mention of any thing said or done in any of
these sittings to those who attend another, for party spirit and
mischief might be the result. Twenty minutes of the union hour may be
devoted to the singing of sacred songs, if desired.
"All are positively forbidden ever to say aught against their brother or
their sister, whatever may be their defects; but such defects shall be
made known to the elders, and to none else. 'If nothing good can be said
of one, say nothing,' is a Shaker maxim. If one member is known by
another to violate an ordinance of the Gospel, the witness thereto shall
gently remind the transgressor, and request him to confess the deed to
the elder. If he refuses, the witness shall divulge it; if he consents,
then is the witness free, as having performed his duty.
"Brethren and sisters shall not visit each other's rooms unless for
errands; and in such cases shall tarry no more than fifteen minutes. A
sister shall not go to the brethren's work places unless accompanied by
another. Brethren's and sister's workshops shall not be under one or the
same roof; they shall not pass each other upon the stairs; nor one of
each converse together unless a third person be present of more than ten
years of age. They shall in no case give presents to each other, nor
lend with the intention of never again receiving. If a sister desires
any assistance, or desires any article made by the brethren, she must
make application to the female deaconesses or stewards, and they will
convey her wishes to the male stewards, who will provide the article or
assistance requested. The converse is required of a brother; although it
is more common for the brother to express his requests direct to the
female steward, thus excluding one link of the concatenation. In each
order a brother is generally appointed to aid the sisters in doing the
heavy work of the laundry, dairy, kitchen, and similar places. All are
required to spend their mornings and evenings, and their leisure time,
in the performance of some good act.
"No one shall leave the premises of the family in which he lives without
the consent of the elders; and he shall obtain the consent by stating
the purpose or business which calls him away. This interdiction includes
the act of going from one family to another. But on their own grounds
_brethren_ may range at pleasure; and the families are so large that
the territory included in the domain of each extends in some directions
for miles around.
"No conversation is allowed between members of different families,
unless it be necessary, succinct, and discreet.
"Before a brother enters a sister's apartment, or a sister enters a
brother's, they shall rap and enter by permission. When they enter the
apartment of their own sex, they may open the door and ask, 'May I come
in?'
"The name of a person shall never be used to designate a dumb beast. No
one is allowed to play with or handle unnecessarily any beast whatever.
Brethren and sisters may not unnecessarily touch each other. If a
brother shakes hands with an unbelieving woman, or a sister with an
unbelieving man, they shall make known the same to the elders before
they attend worship. Such salutes are admissible, for the sake of
civility or custom, if the world party first present the hand--never
without. All visiting of the world's people, even their own relations,
is forbidden, unless there exist a prospect of making converts, or of
gathering some one into the fold. All visiting of other societies of
their own sect is under the immediate superintendence of the ministry,
who prescribe the number, select the persons, appoint the time, define
the length of their stay, and the routes by which they may go and come.
"The deacons are empowered to change the employment of an individual for
an hour, a day, or a week, to perform a necessary piece of labor. But a
permanent removal to another vocation can be required only by the
elders.
"No trading is to be done by any save the trustees, and those whom the
trustees may license. No new literary work or new-fangled article can be
admitted, unless it be first sanctioned by the ministry and elders.
Trustees may purchase any thing they believe may be admissible, and
present the same for the inspection of the leaders. If they disapprove
it, it must be sold. The property is all legally held by trustees, who
may at any time be removed by the ministry. The trustees are to
supervise all financial transactions with the world and other families
and societies of their own denomination, and do all by knowledge and
union of the ministry and elders. There must be two trustees in every
order, and they shall make their financial returns known to each other
every journey they perform. An exact book account of every cent of
disbursement and income shall be presented to the ministry at the close
of every year. The deacons are also to keep an exact account of every
thing manufactured or produced for sale in the family, and these two
registers are compared by the ministry.
"Not a single action of life, whether spiritual or temporal, from the
initiative of confession, or cleansing the habitation of Christ, to that
of dressing the right side first, stepping first with the right foot as
you ascend a flight of stairs, folding the hands with the right-hand
thumb and fingers above those of the left, kneeling and rising again
with the right leg first, and harnessing first the right-hand beast, but
that has a rule for its perfect and strict performance.
"The children, or all under the age of sixteen, unless very precocious,
live, eat, work, play, sleep, and worship, accompanied only by their
caretakers. Once upon the Sabbath do they worship with the adults. Their
meetings are not so long, neither do they retire but fifteen minutes
before them. They never attend union meetings until they emerge into the
adult's degree. Stubborn children are sometimes corrected with a rod;
but any child or beast that requires an extreme severity of coercion to
induce them to conform, the society are not allowed to keep. The
contumacious child must be returned to his parents or guardian, and the
perverse beast must be sold.
"Prayer, supplication, persuasion, and keen admonition constitute the
only means used to incline the disposition and bend the will of those
arrived to years of understanding and reason."
* * * * *
"The boys' shop, so called, is a building two stories in height. In the
upper loft is a large room where the care-takers reside, and where the
boys who wish to read, write, or reflect may retire from the jabbering
and confusion below. Whenever they leave their house or shop, they are
required to go two abreast and keep step with each other. No loud
talking was allowable in the court-yards at any time. No talking or
whispering when passing through the tasteful courts to their work, their
school, their meetings, or their meals; a still, soft walk on tiptoe,
and an indistinct closing of doors in the house; a gentle, yet a more
brisk movement in the shops; a free and jovial conversation when by
themselves in the fields; but not a word, unless when spoken to, when
other brethren than their care-takers were present--such were the orders
we saw rigorously enforced, and the lenities we freely granted. We
allowed them to indulge in the _innocent_ sports practiced
elsewhere. But wrestling and scuffling were rarely permitted. No sports
were allowed in the courtyards, unless all loud talk was suppressed. We a
few times permitted them to roll trucks there, but allowed no verbal
communication only by whispering.
"All were taught to confess all violations of their instructions, and a
portion of every Saturday was set apart for that purpose. They enter one
at a time, and kneel before the care-taker; and, after confessing their
faults, the care-taker makes some necessary inquiries in relation to
other boys, gives them generally some good advice, and they depart.
After eighteen years of age they are not required to kneel during the
act of confession. To watch over a company of boys like these is, with a
little tact, an easy task. The vigils must be incessant; but there are
in so large a number those upon whom the care-taker may rely; and if ill
conduct or bad habits are creeping in, it may soon be detected by a
shrewd observer."
The contracting of a special liking between individuals of opposite
sexes is in some of the societies called "sparking."
* * * * *
DETAILS OF THE SHAKER SOCIETIES.
To describe particularly each of the eighteen Shaker societies would
involve a great deal of unnecessary repetition. In their buildings,
their customs, their worship, their religious faith, their extreme
cleanliness, their costume, and in many other particulars, they are all
nearly alike; and the Shaker of Kentucky does not to the cursory view
differ from his brother of Maine. But I have thought it necessary, to a
complete view of the order, to present some particulars of each society,
as to its location, numbers, the quantity of land it owns, its
industries, and present and past prosperity, as also peculiarities of
thought or custom; and these details will be found below.
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