The Communistic Societies of the United States by Charles Nordhoff

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It is their habit to change their young people from one employment to
another, and thus make each master of several trades. The young women
are not excluded from this variety; and they have now several girls
learning the machinists' trade, in a building appropriated to this
purpose; and their instructor told me they were especially valuable for
the finer and more delicate kinds of lathe-work. A young man whom they
sent to the Sheffield scientific school to study mechanical engineering
had been for a year or two in the machine shop before he went to Yale;
he is now at the head of the silk works. Their student in architecture
had in the same way prepared himself in their carpenter's shop.

No one who visits a communistic society which has been for some time in
existence can fail to be struck with the amount of ingenuity, inventive
skill, and business talent developed among men from whom, in the outer
world, one would not expect such qualities. This is true, too, of the
Oneida Communists. They contrived all the machinery they use for making
traps--one very ingenious piece making the links for the chains. They
had no sooner begun to work in silk than they invented a little toy
which measures the silk thread as it is wound on spools, and accurately
gauges the number of yards; and another which tests the strength of
silk; and these have come into such general use that they already make
them for sale.

So, too, when they determined to begin the silk manufacture, they sent
one of their young men and two women to work as hands in a well-managed
factory. In six months these returned, having sufficiently mastered the
business to undertake the employment and instruction of hired operatives.
Of the machinery they use, they bought one set and made all the remainder
upon its pattern, in their own foundry and shops. A young man who had
studied chemistry was sent out to a dye-house, and in a few months made
himself a competent dyer. In all this complicated enterprise they made so
few mistakes that in six months after they began to produce silk-twist
their factory had a secure reputation in the market.

It is their custom to employ their people, where they have responsible
places, in couples. Thus there are two house stewards, two foremen in a
factory, etc.; both having equal knowledge, and one always ready to take
the other's place if he finds the work wearing upon him.

They seemed to me to have an almost fanatical horror of forms. Thus they
change their avocations frequently; they remove from Oneida to Willow
Place, or to Wallingford, on slight excuses; they change the order of
their evening meetings and amusements with much care; and have changed
even their meal hours. One said to me, "We used to eat three meals a
day--now we eat but two; but we may be eating five six months from now."

Very few of their young people have left them; and some who have gone
out have sought to return. They have expelled but one person since the
community was organized. While they received members, they exacted no
probationary period, but used great care before admission. Mr. Noyes
said on this subject:

"There has been a very great amount of discrimination and vigilance
exercised by the Oneida Community from first to last in regard to our
fellowships, and yet it seems to me it is one of the greatest miracles
that this community has succeeded as it has. Notwithstanding our
discrimination and determination to wait on God in regard to those we
receive, we scarcely have been saved."

New members sign a paper containing the creed, and also an agreement to
claim no wages or other reward for their labor while in the community.

IV.--SUNDAY AT THE ONEIDA COMMUNITY, WITH SOME ACCOUNT OF "CRITICISM."

I was permitted to spend several days at the Oneida Community, among
which was a Sunday.

The people are kind, polite to each other and to strangers, cheerful,
and industrious. There is no confusion, and for so large a number very
little noise. Where two hundred people live together in one house,
order, system, and punctuality are necessary; and loud voices would soon
become a nuisance.

I was shown the house, the kitchen and heating arrangements, the barns
with their fine stock, the various manufacturing operations; and in the
evening was taken to their daily gathering, at which instrumental music,
singing, and conversation engage them for an hour, after which they
disperse to the private parlors to amuse themselves with dominoes or
dancing, or to the library to read or write letters. Cards are
prohibited. The questions I asked were freely answered; and all the
people in one way or another came under my eye.

Some of them have the hard features of toil-worn New England farmers;
others look like the average business-men of our country towns or inland
cities; others are students, and there are a number of college-bred men
in the community. A fine collection of birds in a cabinet, skillfully
stuffed and mounted, showed me that there is in the society a lively
love of natural history. The collection is, I should think, almost
complete for the birds of the region about Oneida.

The people seem contented, and pleased with their success, as well they
may be, for it is remarkable. They use good language, and the standard
of education among them is considerably above the average. No doubt the
training they get in their evening discussions, and in the habit of
writing for a paper whose English is pretty carefully watched, has
benefited them. They struck me as matter-of-fact, with no nonsense or
romance about them, by no means overworked, and with a certain, perhaps
for their place in life high average of culture. I should say that the
women are inferior to the men: examining the faces at an evening
meeting, this was the impression I carried away.

If I should add that the predominant impression made upon me was that it
was a common-place company, I might give offense; but, after all, what
else but this could be the expression of people whose lives are removed
from need, and narrowly bounded by their community; whose religious
theory calls for no internal struggles, and, once within the community,
very little self-denial; who are well-fed and sufficiently amused, and
not overworked, and have no future to fear? The greater passions are not
stirred in such a life. If these are once thoroughly awakened, the
individual leaves the community.

On Sunday the first work is to sort and send away to the laundry the
soiled clothing of the week. After this comes the regular weekly meeting
of the Business Board; and thereafter meetings for criticism, conducted
in rooms apart.

The institution of Criticism, a description of which I have reserved for
this place, is a most important and ingenious device, which Noyes and
his followers rightly regard as the corner-stone of their practical
community life. It is in fact their main instrument of government; and
it is useful as a means of eliminating uncongenial elements, and also to
train those who remain into harmony with the general system and order.

I am told that it was first used by Mr. Noyes while he was a divinity
student at Andover, where certain members of his class were accustomed
to meet together to criticize each other. The person to suffer criticism
sits in silence, while the rest of the company, each in turn, tell him
his faults, with, I judge, an astonishing and often exasperating
plainness of speech. Here is the account given by Mr. Noyes himself:

"The measures relied upon for good government in these community
families are, first, _daily evening meetings_, which all are
expected to attend. In these meetings, religious, social, and business
matters are freely discussed, and opportunity given for exhortation and
reproof. Secondly, _the system of mutual criticism_. This system
takes the place of backbiting in ordinary society, and is regarded as one
of the greatest means of improvement and fellowship. All of the members
are accustomed to voluntarily invite the benefit of this ordinance from
time to time. Sometimes persons are criticized by the entire family; at
other times by a committee of six, eight, twelve, or more, selected by
themselves from among those best acquainted with them, and best able to
do justice to their character. In these criticisms the most perfect
sincerity is expected; and in practical experience it is found best for
the subject to receive his criticism without replying. There is little
danger that the general verdict in respect to his character will be
unjust. This ordinance is far from agreeable to those whose egotism and
vanity are stronger than their love of truth. It is an ordeal which
reveals insincerity and selfishness; but it also often takes the form of
commendation, and reveals hidden virtues as well as secret faults. It is
always acceptable to those who wish to see themselves as others see
them.

"These two agencies--daily evening meetings and criticism--are found
quite adequate to the maintenance of good order and government in the
communities. Those who join the communities understanding their
principles, and afterward prove refractory and inharmonic, and also
those who come into the communities in childhood, and afterward develop
characters antagonistic to the general spirit, and refuse to yield to
the governmental agencies mentioned, either voluntarily withdraw or are
expelled. Only one case of expulsion is, however, recorded."

They depend upon criticism to cure whatever they regard as faults in the
character of a member; for instance, idleness, disorderly habits,
impoliteness, selfishness, a love of novel-reading, "selfish love,"
conceit, pride, stubbornness, a grumbling spirit--for every vice, petty
or great, criticism is held to be a remedy. They have even a
"criticism-cure," and hold that this is almost as effective as their
"prayer-cure."

On Sunday afternoon, by the kindness of a young man who had offered
himself for criticism, I was permitted to be present. Fifteen persons
besides myself, about half women, and about half young people under
thirty, were seated in a room, mostly on benches placed against the
wall. Among them was Mr. Noyes himself, who sat in a large
rocking-chair. The young man to be criticized, whom I will call Charles,
sat inconspicuously in the midst of the company. When the doors were
closed, he was asked by the leader (not Mr. Noyes) whether he desired to
say any thing. Retaining his seat, he said that he had suffered for some
time past from certain intellectual difficulties and doubts--a leaning
especially toward positivism, and lack of faith; being drawn away from
God; a tendency to think religion of small moment. But that he was
combating the evil spirit within him, and hoped he had gained somewhat;
and so on.

Hereupon a man being called on to speak, remarked that he thought
Charles had been somewhat hardened by too great good-fortune; that his
success in certain enterprises had somewhat spoiled him; if he had not
succeeded so well, he would have been a better man; that he was somewhat
wise in his own esteem; not given to consult with others, or to seek or
take advice. One or two other men agreed generally with the previous
remarks, had noticed these faults in Charles, and that they made him
disagreeable; and gave examples to show his faults. Another concurred in
the general testimony, but added that he thought Charles had lately made
efforts to correct some of his faults, though there was still much room
for improvement.

A young woman next remarked that Charles was haughty and supercilious,
and thought himself better than others with whom he was brought into
contact; that he was needlessly curt sometimes to those with whom he had
to speak.

Another young woman added that Charles was a respecter of persons; that
he showed his liking for certain individuals too plainly by calling them
pet names before people; that he seemed to forget that such things were
disagreeable and wrong.

Another woman said that Charles was often careless in his language;
sometimes used slang words, and was apt to give a bad impression to
strangers. Also that he did not always conduct himself at table,
especially before visitors, with careful politeness and good manners.

A man concurred in this, and remarked that he had heard Charles condemn
the beefsteak on a certain occasion as tough; and had made other
unnecessary remarks about the food on the table while he was eating.

A woman remarked that she had on several occasions found Charles a
respecter of persons.

Another said that Charles, though industrious and faithful in all
temporalities, and a very able man, was not religious at all.

A man remarked that Charles was, as others had said, somewhat spoiled by
his own success, but that it was a mistake for him to be so, for he was
certain that Charles's success came mainly from the wisdom and care with
which the society had surrounded him with good advisers, who had guided
him; and that Charles ought therefore to be humble, instead of proud and
haughty, as one who ought to look outside of himself for the real
sources of his success.

Finally, two or three remarked that he had been in a certain transaction
insincere toward another young man, saying one thing to his face and
another to others; and in this one or two women concurred.

Amid all this very plain speaking, which I have considerably condensed,
giving only the general charges, Charles sat speechless, looking before
him; but as the accusations multiplied, his face grew paler, and drops
of perspiration began to stand on his forehead. The remarks I have
reported took up about half an hour; and now, each one in the circle
having spoken, Mr. Noyes summed up.

He said that Charles had some serious faults; that he had watched him
with some care; and that he thought the young man was earnestly trying
to cure himself. He spoke in general praise of his ability, his good
character, and of certain temptations he had resisted in the course of
his life. He thought he saw signs that Charles was making a real and
earnest attempt to conquer his faults; and as one evidence of this he
remarked that Charles had lately come to him to consult him upon a
difficult case in which he had had a severe struggle, but had in the end
succeeded in doing right. "In the course of what we call stirpiculture,"
said Noyes, "Charles, as you know, is in the situation of one who is by
and by to become a father. Under these circumstances, he has fallen
under the too common temptation of selfish love, and a desire to wait
upon and cultivate an exclusive intimacy with the woman who was to bear
a child through him. This is an insidious temptation, very apt to attack
people under such circumstances; but it must nevertheless be struggled
against." Charles, he went on to say, had come to him for advice in this
case, and he (Noyes) had at first refused to tell him any thing, but had
asked him what he thought he ought to do; that after some conversation,
Charles had determined, and he agreed with him, that he ought to isolate
himself entirely from the woman, and let another man take his place at
her side; and this Charles had accordingly done, with a most
praiseworthy spirit of self-sacrifice. Charles had indeed still further
taken up his cross, as he had noticed with pleasure, by going to sleep
with the smaller children, to take charge of them during the night.
Taking all this in view, he thought Charles was in a fair way to become
a better man, and had manifested a sincere desire to improve, and to rid
himself of all selfish faults.

Thereupon the meeting was dismissed.

All that I have recited was said by practiced tongues. The people knew
very well how to express themselves. There was no vagueness, no
uncertainty. Every point was made; every sentence was a hit--a stab I
was going to say, but as the sufferer was a volunteer, I suppose this
would be too strong a word. I could see, however, that while Charles
might be benefited by the "criticism," those who spoke of him would
perhaps also be the better for their speech; for if there had been
bitterness in any of their hearts before, this was likely to be
dissipated by the free utterance. Concerning the closing remarks of
Noyes, which disclose so strange and horrible a view of morals and duty,
I need say nothing.

Here are a few specimens of criticisms which have been printed in the
_Circular_. The first concerns a young woman:

"What God has done for U. is wonderful; her natural gifts and
attractions are uncommon; but she has added very little to them. She is
spoiling them by indolence and vanity. The gifts we have by nature do
not belong to us. We shall have to give account for them to God as his
property. All that we can expect any reward for is what we add to that
which he gives us." The next seems to point at troubles of a kind to
which the community is, I suppose, more or less subject:

"I wish I could entirely change public opinion among us in regard to the
matter of keeping secrets. The fact that a person is of such a character
that others associated with him are afraid that he will finally expose
their wrong-doing is the highest credit to him. I would earnestly exhort
all lovers of every degree, young and old, and especially the young, to
consider the absolute impossibility of permanently keeping secrets. It
is not for us to say whether we will keep other folks' secrets or not.
It is for God to say. We are in his hands, and he will make us tell the
truth even though we say we won't. He has certainly made it his
programme and eternal purpose that every secret thing shall come to
light. What is done in darkness shall be published on the house-top.
This is sure to come, because it is God's policy, and it is vain for us
to seek to evade and thwart it. Two persons get together with shameful
secrets, and promise and protest and pledge themselves never to turn on
each other. What is the use? It is not for them to say what they will
do. They _will_ finally turn on one another. It is a mercy to them
that they must. The best thing to be said of them is that they are likely
to turn on one another and betray their secrets. They will, if there is
any honesty or true purpose in them. This keeping secrets that are
dishonest, profane, and infernal, and regarding them as sacred, is all
wrong. It is the rule of friendship and honor in the world, but to let
the daylight in on every thing is the rule for those who want to please
God."

What follows relates to a man who was cast down because of criticism,
and whose fault Noyes says is excessive sensitiveness:

"Excessive sensitiveness is a great fault. Every one should strive to
get where he can judge himself, look at himself truthfully by the grace
of God, and cultivate what may be called the superior consciousness,
looking at his own fault as he would at another person's, and feeling no
more pain in dissecting his own character than he would that of any one
else. This superior consciousness takes us into fellowship with God and
his judgment; and in that condition it is possible to rejoice in pulling
to pieces our own works. Paul says: 'Other foundation can no man lay
than that is laid, which is Jesus Christ. Now if any man build upon this
foundation gold, silver, precious stones, wood, hay, stubble, every
man's work shall be made manifest--for the day shall declare it, because
it shall be revealed by fire; and the fire shall try every man's work,
of what sort it is. If any man's work abide which he hath built
thereupon, he shall receive a reward. If any man's work shall be burned,
he shall suffer loss; but he himself shall be saved, yet so as by fire.'
There is a great amount of poor building upon that good foundation; a
great number of structures that are wood, hay, and stubble, and which in
the day of fire will be burned up. The main point to be gained by those
who have thus built is to get into such sympathy with God that they can
stand by when the day of fire comes, and help on the destruction--poke
the wood, hay, and stubble into the flame, rejoicing that they have a
good foundation, and are to be saved not only from the fire, but by the
fire."

Finally, they use criticism as a remedy for diseases. I take this
example from the _Circular_ for June 4, 1853:

"S. P., having a bad cold and symptoms of a run of fever, tried the
criticism-cure, and was immediately relieved. She was on the bed in a
state of pain and restlessness, when a friend mentioned to her the above
remedy as having been successfully applied in similar cases. Having some
faith in it, she arose immediately and made her wishes known to the
family physician, that is, to the _family_, who kindly administered
the remedy without delay. The operation was not particularly
agreeable--there is no method of cure that is; but it was short and
speedily efficacious. One secret of its efficacy is, it stops the flow
of thought toward the seat of difficulty, and so tends directly to
reduce inflammation. At the same time it has a very bracing,
invigorating effect. In the present case, it went right to the cause of
the disease, which was discovered to be a spirit of _fear_, throwing
open the pores and predisposing the subject to the attack. S. P. had
been brought up in a bad habit in this respect, expecting with every
exposure to take cold--and then expecting to have it go on to a serious
cough, and so on--fear realizing itself. Criticism stopped this false
action, and not only made her well in the first instance, but by
breaking up this fear it has given her comparative security against
future attacks. It requires some fortitude and self-denial in the
patient, when he thinks he needs sympathy and nursing, to take criticism
instead; but it is well known that to rouse the will to strong exertion
is more than half a cure. The criticism remedy professes to be
universal, and is recommended for trial to all the afflicted."

The _Circular_ for December, 1863, reports:

"It is a common custom here for every one who may be attacked with any
disorder to apply this remedy by sending for a committee of six or eight
persons, in whose faith and spiritual judgment he has confidence, to
come and criticize him. The result, when administered sincerely, is
almost universally to throw the patient into a sweat, or to bring on a
reaction of his life against disease, breaking it up, and restoring him
soon to usual health. We have seen this result produced without any
other agency except the use of ice, in perhaps twenty cases of sore
throat within a few weeks. We have seen it take effect at an advanced
stage of chronic disease, and raise a person up apparently from death's
door. It seems a somewhat heroic method of treatment when a person is
suffering in body to apply a castigation to the character through the
spiritual or moral part; but this is precisely the thing needed to
cleanse and purify the system from disease. We have tried it, and found
it to be invaluable. To all who have faith in Christ as a physician we
can commend this prescription as a medium for conveying his healing
life. If you are sick, seek for some one to tell you your faults, to
find out your weakest spot in character or conduct; let them put their
finger on the very sore that you would best like to keep hid. Depend
upon it, there is the avenue through which disease gets access to you.
And if the sincerity which points this out and opens it to the light
hurts, and is mortifying for the time being, it is only a sign that the
remedy is applied at the right place and is taking effect."

In a recent number of the _Circular_ (1874) a "criticism of a sick
man" is reported in full. It is too long to give here; but I quote a few
of the remarks, to show the style of attack in such cases. The report
opens with this statement:

"[L. has been quite prostrate for months with some kind of spinal
affection, complicated with chills and fever. In presenting himself for
criticism, he was invited, as the subject generally is, to open his own
case. He said he was under a spirit of depression and discouragement,
particularly about his health. He thought he should be better off if he
did not know so much about his disease. Dr. Pope had pronounced it
incurable.]"

W. said:

"I think that L. is troubled with false imaginations, and that he has
inherited this tendency. His father was subject to the hypo--always a
prey to imaginations. I question whether the root of L.'s whole
difficulty does not lie in his imagination. I don't doubt but that he
feels what he thinks he does, but imagination has terrible power to make
us feel. Christ can cast down imaginations, and every high thing that
exalteth itself against the knowledge of God."

J. said:

"He talks a great deal about his symptoms. If he would talk on the side
of faith, I think he would be a well man right off. He is as well as any
body when he _is_ well, and there is no reason why he should not be
well all the time. He is a very valuable member of the community, and I
don't like to see him lie on his back so much.

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