The Notebooks of Leonardo Da Vinci, Complete by Leonardo Da Vinci

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_a b c_ [_d_] are all relatively of equal length, _c d_ goes twice
from the sole of the foot to the centre of the knee and the same
from the knee to the hip.

[28]_a b c_ are equal; _a_ to _b_ is 2 feet--that is to say
measuring from the heel to the tip of the great toe.

[Footnote: See Pl. XV. The text of lines 2-17 is to the left of the
front view of the leg, to which it refers. Lines 18-27 are in the
middle column and refer to the leg seen in profile and turned to the
left, on the right hand side of the writing. Lines 20-30 are above,
to the left and apply to the sketch below them.

Some farther remarks on the proportion of the leg will be found in
No. 336, lines 6, 7.]

On the central point of the whole body.

332.

In kneeling down a man will lose the fourth part of his height.

When a man kneels down with his hands folded on his breast the navel
will mark half his height and likewise the points of the elbows.

Half the height of a man who sits--that is from the seat to the top
of the head--will be where the arms fold below the breast, and
below the shoulders. The seated portion--that is from the seat to
the top of the head--will be more than half the man's [whole height]
by the length of the scrotum.

[Footnote: See Pl. VIII, No. 2.]

The relative proportions of the torso and of the whole figure.

333.

The cubit is one fourth of the height of a man and is equal to the
greatest width of the shoulders. From the joint of one shoulder to
the other is two faces and is equal to the distance from the top of
the breast to the navel. [Footnote 9: _dalla detta somita_. It would
seem more accurate to read here _dal detto ombilico_.] From this
point to the genitals is a face's length.

[Footnote: Compare with this the sketches on the other page of the
same leaf. Pl. VIII, No. 2.]

The relative proportions of the head and of the torso.

334.

From the roots of the hair to the top of the breast _a b_ is the
sixth part of the height of a man and this measure is equal.

From the outside part of one shoulder to the other is the same
distance as from the top of the breast to the navel and this measure
goes four times from the sole of the foot to the lower end of the
nose.

The [thickness of] the arm where it springs from the shoulder in
front goes 6 times into the space between the two outside edges of
the shoulders and 3 times into the face, and four times into the
length of the foot and three into the hand, inside or outside.

[Footnote: The three sketches Pl. XIV, No. 2 belong to this text.]

The relative proportions of the torso and of the leg (335. 336).

335.

_a b c_ are equal to each other and to the space from the armpit of
the shoulder to the genitals and to the distance from the tip of the
fingers of the hand to the joint of the arm, and to the half of the
breast; and you must know that _c b_ is the third part of the height
of a man from the shoulders to the ground; _d e f_ are equal to each
other and equal to the greatest width of the shoulders.

[Footnote: See Pl. XVI, No. 1.]

336.

--Top of the chin--hip--the insertion of the middle finger. The end
of the calf of the leg on the inside of the thigh.--The end of the
swelling of the shin bone of the leg. [6] The smallest thickness of
the leg goes 3 times into the thigh seen in front.

[Footnote: See Pl. XVII, No. 2, middle sketch.]

The relative proportions of the torso and of the foot.

337.

The torso _a b_ in its thinnest part measures a foot; and from _a_
to _b_ is 2 feet, which makes two squares to the seat--its thinnest
part goes 3 times into the length, thus making 3 squares.

[Footnote: See Pl, VII, No. 2, the lower sketch.]

The proportions of the whole figure (338-341).

338.

A man when he lies down is reduced to 1/9 of his height.

339.

The opening of the ear, the joint of the shoulder, that of the hip
and the ancle are in perpendicular lines; _a n_ is equal to _m o_.

[Footnote: See Pl. XVI, No. 2, the upper sketch.]

340.

From the chin to the roots of the hair is 1/10 of the whole figure.
From the joint of the palm of the hand to the tip of the longest
finger is 1/10. From the chin to the top of the head 1/8; and from
the pit of the stomach to the top of the breast is 1/6, and from the
pit below the breast bone to the top of the head 1/4. From the chin
to the nostrils 1/3 Part of the face, the same from the nostrils to
the brow and from the brow to the roots of the hair, and the foot is
1/6, the elbow 1/4, the width of the shoulders 1/4.

341.

The width of the shoulders is 1/4 of the whole. From the joint of
the shoulder to the hand is 1/3, from the parting of the lips to
below the shoulder-blade is one foot.

The greatest thickness of a man from the breast to the spine is one
8th of his height and is equal to the space between the bottom of
the chin and the top of the head.

The greatest width is at the shoulders and goes 4.

The torso from the front and back.

342.

The width of a man under the arms is the same as at the hips.

A man's width across the hips is equal to the distance from the top
of the hip to the bottom of the buttock, when a man stands equally
balanced on both feet; and there is the same distance from the top
of the hip to the armpit. The waist, or narrower part above the hips
will be half way between the arm pits and the bottom of the buttock.

[Footnote: The lower sketch Pl. XVI, No. 2, is drawn by the side of
line 1.]

Vitruvius' scheme of proportions.

343.

Vitruvius, the architect, says in his work on architecture that the
measurements of the human body are distributed by Nature as follows:
that is that 4 fingers make 1 palm, and 4 palms make 1 foot, 6 palms
make 1 cubit; 4 cubits make a man's height. And 4 cubits make one
pace and 24 palms make a man; and these measures he used in his
buildings. If you open your legs so much as to decrease your height
1/14 and spread and raise your arms till your middle fingers touch
the level of the top of your head you must know that the centre of
the outspread limbs will be in the navel and the space between the
legs will be an equilateral triangle.

The length of a man's outspread arms is equal to his height.

From the roots of the hair to the bottom of the chin is the tenth of
a man's height; from the bottom of the chin to the top of his head
is one eighth of his height; from the top of the breast to the top
of his head will be one sixth of a man. From the top of the breast
to the roots of the hair will be the seventh part of the whole man.
From the nipples to the top of the head will be the fourth part of a
man. The greatest width of the shoulders contains in itself the
fourth part of the man. From the elbow to the tip of the hand will
be the fifth part of a man; and from the elbow to the angle of the
armpit will be the eighth part of the man. The whole hand will be
the tenth part of the man; the beginning of the genitals marks the
middle of the man. The foot is the seventh part of the man. From the
sole of the foot to below the knee will be the fourth part of the
man. From below the knee to the beginning of the genitals will be
the fourth part of the man. The distance from the bottom of the chin
to the nose and from the roots of the hair to the eyebrows is, in
each case the same, and like the ear, a third of the face.

[Footnote: See Pl. XVIII. The original leaf is 21 centimetres wide
and 33 1/2 long. At the ends of the scale below the figure are
written the words _diti_ (fingers) and _palmi_ (palms). The passage
quoted from Vitruvius is Book III, Cap. 1, and Leonardo's drawing is
given in the editions of Vitruvius by FRA GIOCONDO (Venezia 1511,
fol., Firenze 1513, 8vo.) and by CESARIANO (Como 1521).]

The arm and head.

344.

From _b_ to _a_ is one head, as well as from _c_ to _a_ and this
happens when the elbow forms a right angle.

[Footnote: See Pl. XLI, No. 1.]

Proportions of the arm (345-349).

345.

From the tip of the longest finger of the hand to the shoulder joint
is four hands or, if you will, four faces.

_a b c_ are equal and each interval is 2 heads.

[Footnote: Lines 1-3 are given on Pl. XV below the front view of the
leg; lines 4 and 5 are below again, on the left side. The lettering
refers to the bent arm near the text.]

346.

The hand from the longest finger to the wrist joint goes 4 times
from the tip of the longest finger to the shoulder joint.

347.

_a b c_ are equal to each other and to the foot and to the space
between the nipple and the navel _d e_ will be the third part of the
whole man.

_f g_ is the fourth part of a man and is equal to _g h_ and measures
a cubit.

[Footnote: See Pl. XIX, No. 1. 1. _mamolino_ (=_bambino_, little
child) may mean here the navel.]

348.

_a b_ goes 4 times into _a c_ and 9 into _a m_. The greatest
thickness of the arm between the elbow and the hand goes 6 times
into _a m_ and is equal to _r f_. The greatest thickness of the arm
between the shoulder and the elbow goes 4 times into _c m_, and is
equal to _h n g_. The smallest thickness of the arm above the elbow
_x y_ is not the base of a square, but is equal to half the space
_h_ 3 which is found between the inner joint of the arm and the
wrist joint.

[11]The width of the wrist goes 12 times into the whole arm; that is
from the tip of the fingers to the shoulder joint; that is 3 times
into the hand and 9 into the arm.

The arm when bent is 4 heads.

The arm from the shoulder to the elbow in bending increases in
length, that is in the length from the shoulder to the elbow, and
this increase is equal to the thickness of the arm at the wrist when
seen in profile. And the space between the bottom of the chin and
the parting of the lips, is equal to the thickness of the 2 middle
fingers, and to the width of the mouth and to the space between the
roots of the hair on the forehead and the top of the head [Footnote:
_Queste cose_. This passage seems to have been written on purpose to
rectify the foregoing lines. The error is explained by the
accompanying sketch of the bones of the arm.]. All these distances
are equal to each other, but they are not equal to the
above-mentioned increase in the arm.

The arm between the elbow and wrist never increases by being bent or
extended.

The arm, from the shoulder to the inner joint when extended.

When the arm is extended, _p n_ is equal to _n a_. And when it is
bent _n a_ diminishes 1/6 of its length and _p n_ does the same. The
outer elbow joint increases 1/7 when bent; and thus by being bent it
increases to the length of 2 heads. And on the inner side, by
bending, it is found that whereas the arm from where it joins the
side to the wrist, was 2 heads and a half, in bending it loses the
half head and measures only two: one from the [shoulder] joint to
the end [by the elbow], and the other to the hand.

The arm when folded will measure 2 faces up to the shoulder from the
elbow and 2 from the elbow to the insertion of the four fingers on
the palm of the hand. The length from the base of the fingers to the
elbow never alters in any position of the arm.

If the arm is extended it decreases by 1/3 of the length between _b_
and _h_; and if--being extended--it is bent, it will increase the
half of _o e_. [Footnote 59-61: The figure sketched in the margin is
however drawn to different proportions.] The length from the
shoulder to the elbow is the same as from the base of the thumb,
inside, to the elbow _a b c_.

[Footnote 62-64: The arm sketch on the margin of the MS. is
identically the same as that given below on Pl. XX which may
therefore be referred to in this place. In line 62 we read therefore
_z c_ for _m n_.] The smallest thickness of the arm in profile _z c_
goes 6 times between the knuckles of the hand and the dimple of the
elbow when extended and 14 times in the whole arm and 42 in the
whole man [64]. The greatest thickness of the arm in profile is
equal to the greatest thickness of the arm in front; but the first
is placed at a third of the arm from the shoulder joint to the elbow
and the other at a third from the elbow towards the hand.

[Footnote: Compare Pl. XVII. Lines 1-10 and 11-15 are written in two
columns below the extended arm, and at the tips of the fingers we
find the words: _fine d'unghie_ (ends of the nails). Part of the
text--lines 22 to 25--is visible by the side of the sketches on Pl.
XXXV, No. 1.]

349.

From the top of the shoulder to the point of the elbow is as far as
from that point to the joints of the four fingers with the palm of
the hand, and each is 2 faces.

[5]_a e_ is equal to the palm of the hand, _r f_ and _o g_ are equal
to half a head and each goes 4 times into _a b_ and _b c_. From _c_
to _m_ is 1/2 a head; _m n_ is 1/3 of a head and goes 6 times into
_c b_ and into _b a_; _a b_ loses 1/7 of its length when the arm is
extended; _c b_ never alters; _o_ will always be the middle point
between _a_ and _s_.

_y l_ is the fleshy part of the arm and measures one head; and when
the arm is bent this shrinks 2/5 of its length; _o a_ in bending
loses 1/6 and so does _o r_.

_a b_ is 1/7 of _r c_. _f s_ will be 1/8 of _r c_, and each of those
2 measurements is the largest of the arm; _k h_ is the thinnest part
between the shoulder and the elbow and it is 1/8 of the whole arm _r
c_; _o p_ is 1/5 of _r l_; _c z_ goes 13 times into _r c_.

[Footnote: See Pl. XX where the text is also seen from lines 5-23.]

The movement of the arm (350-354).

350.

In the innermost bend of the joints of every limb the reliefs are
converted into a hollow, and likewise every hollow of the innermost
bends becomes a convexity when the limb is straightened to the
utmost. And in this very great mistakes are often made by those who
have insufficient knowledge and trust to their own invention and do
not have recourse to the imitation of nature; and these variations
occur more in the middle of the sides than in front, and more at the
back than at the sides.

351.

When the arm is bent at an angle at the elbow, it will produce some
angle; the more acute the angle is, the more will the muscles within
the bend be shortened; while the muscles outside will become of
greater length than before. As is shown in the example; _d c e_ will
shrink considerably; and _b n_ will be much extended.

[Footnote: See Pl. XIX, No. 2.]

352.

OF PAINTING.

The arm, as it turns, thrusts back its shoulder towards the middle
of the back.

353.

The principal movements of the hand are 10; that is forwards,
backwards, to right and to left, in a circular motion, up or down,
to close and to open, and to spread the fingers or to press them
together.

354.

OF THE MOTIONS OF THE FINGERS.

The movements of the fingers principally consist in extending and
bending them. This extension and bending vary in manner; that is,
sometimes they bend altogether at the first joint; sometimes they
bend, or extend, half way, at the 2nd joint; and sometimes they bend
in their whole length and in all the three joints at once. If the 2
first joints are hindered from bending, then the 3rd joint can be
bent with greater ease than before; it can never bend of itself, if
the other joints are free, unless all three joints are bent. Besides
all these movements there are 4 other principal motions of which 2
are up and down, the two others from side to side; and each of these
is effected by a single tendon. From these there follow an infinite
number of other movements always effected by two tendons; one tendon
ceasing to act, the other takes up the movement. The tendons are
made thick inside the fingers and thin outside; and the tendons
inside are attached to every joint but outside they are not.

[Footnote 26: This head line has, in the original, no text to
follow.] Of the strength [and effect] of the 3 tendons inside the
fingers at the 3 joints.

The movement of the torso (355-361).

355.

Observe the altered position of the shoulder in all the movements of
the arm, going up and down, inwards and outwards, to the back and to
the front, and also in circular movements and any others.

And do the same with reference to the neck, hands and feet and the
breast above the lips &c.

356.

Three are the principal muscles of the shoulder, that is _b c d_,
and two are the lateral muscles which move it forward and backward,
that is _a o_; _a_ moves it forward, and _o_ pulls it back; and bed
raises it; _a b c_ moves it upwards and forwards, and _c d o_
upwards and backwards. Its own weight almost suffices to move it
downwards.

The muscle _d_ acts with the muscle _c_ when the arm moves forward;
and in moving backward the muscle _b_ acts with the muscle _c_.

[Footnote: See Pl. XXI. In the original the lettering has been
written in ink upon the red chalk drawing and the outlines of the
figures have in most places been inked over.]

357.

OF THE LOINS, WHEN BENT.

The loins or backbone being bent. The breasts are are always lower
than the shoulderblades of the back.

If the breast bone is arched the breasts are higher than the
shoulderblades.

If the loins are upright the breast will always be found at the same
level as the shoulderblades.

[Footnote: See Pl. XXII, No. 1.]

358.

_a b_ the tendon and ankle in raising the heel approach each other
by a finger's breadth; in lowering it they separate by a finger's
breadth.

[Footnote: See Pl. XXII, No. 2. Compare this facsimile and text with
Pl. III, No. 2, and p. 152 of MANZI'S edition. Also with No. 274 of
LUDWIG'S edition of the Vatican Copy.]

359.

Just so much as the part _d a_ of the nude figure decreases in this
position so much does the opposite part increase; that is: in
proportion as the length of the part _d a_ diminishes the normal
size so does the opposite upper part increase beyond its [normal]
size. The navel does not change its position to the male organ; and
this shrinking arises because when a figure stands on one foot, that
foot becomes the centre [of gravity] of the superimposed weight.
This being so, the middle between the shoulders is thrust above it
out of it perpendicular line, and this line, which forms the central
line of the external parts of the body, becomes bent at its upper
extremity [so as to be] above the foot which supports the body; and
the transverse lines are forced into such angles that their ends are
lower on the side which is supported. As is shown at _a b c_.

[Footnote: See Pl. XXII, No. 3.]

360.

OF PAINTING.

Note in the motions and attitudes of figures how the limbs vary, and
their feeling, for the shoulderblades in the motions of the arms and
shoulders vary the [line of the] back bone very much. And you will
find all the causes of this in my book of Anatomy.

361.

OF [CHANGE OF] ATTITUDE.

The pit of the throat is over the feet, and by throwing one arm
forward the pit of the throat is thrown off that foot. And if the
leg is thrown forward the pit of the throat is thrown forward; and.
so it varies in every attitude.

362.

OF PAINTING.

Indicate which are the muscles, and which the tendons, which become
prominent or retreat in the different movements of each limb; or
which do neither [but are passive]. And remember that these
indications of action are of the first importance and necessity in
any painter or sculptor who professes to be a master &c.

And indicate the same in a child, and from birth to decrepitude at
every stage of its life; as infancy, childhood, boyhood, youth &c.

And in each express the alterations in the limbs and joints, which
swell and which grow thinner.

363.

O Anatomical Painter! beware lest the too strong indication of the
bones, sinews and muscles, be the cause of your becoming wooden in
your painting by your wish to make your nude figures display all
their feeling. Therefore, in endeavouring to remedy this, look in
what manner the muscles clothe or cover their bones in old or lean
persons; and besides this, observe the rule as to how these same
muscles fill up the spaces of the surface that extend between them,
which are the muscles which never lose their prominence in any
amount of fatness; and which too are the muscles of which the
attachments are lost to sight in the very least plumpness. And in
many cases several muscles look like one single muscle in the
increase of fat; and in many cases, in growing lean or old, one
single muscle divides into several muscles. And in this treatise,
each in its place, all their peculiarities will be explained--and
particularly as to the spaces between the joints of each limb &c.
Again, do not fail [to observe] the variations in the forms of the
above mentioned muscles, round and about the joints of the limbs of
any animal, as caused by the diversity of the motions of each limb;
for on some side of those joints the prominence of these muscles is
wholly lost in the increase or diminution of the flesh of which
these muscles are composed, &c.

[Footnote: DE ROSSI remarks on this chapter, in the Roman edition of
the Trattato, p. 504: "_Non in questo luogo solo, ma in altri ancora
osservera il lettore, che Lionardo va fungendo quelli che fanno
abuso della loro dottrina anatomica, e sicuramente con cio ha in
mira il suo rivale Bonarroti, che di anatomia facea tanta pompa_."
Note, that Leonardo wrote this passage in Rome, probably under the
immediate impression of MICHAELANGELO'S paintings in the Sistine
Chapel and of RAPHAEL'S Isaiah in Sant' Agostino.]

364.

OF THE DIFFERENT MEASUREMENTS OF BOYS AND MEN.

There is a great difference in the length between the joints in men
and boys for, in man, from the top of the shoulder [by the neck] to
the elbow, and from the elbow to the tip of the thumb and from one
shoulder to the other, is in each instance two heads, while in a boy
it is but one because Nature constructs in us the mass which is the
home of the intellect, before forming that which contains the vital
elements.

365.

OF PAINTING.

Which are the muscles which subdivide in old age or in youth, when
becoming lean? Which are the parts of the limbs of the human frame
where no amount of fat makes the flesh thicker, nor any degree of
leanness ever diminishes it?

The thing sought for in this question will be found in all the
external joints of the bones, as the shoulder, elbow, wrists,
finger-joints, hips, knees, ankle-bone and toes and the like; all of
which shall be told in its place. The greatest thickness acquired by
any limb is at the part of the muscles which is farthest from its
attachments.

Flesh never increases on those portions of the limb where the bones
are near to the surface.

At _b r d a c e f_ the increase or diminution of the flesh never
makes any considerable difference. Nature has placed in front of man
all those parts which feel most pain under a blow; and these are the
shin of the leg, the forehead, and the nose. And this was done for
the preservation of man, since, if such pain were not felt in these
parts, the number of blows to which they would be exposed must be
the cause of their destruction.

Describe why the bones of the arm and leg are double near the hand
and foot [respectively].

And where the flesh is thicker or thinner in the bending of the
limbs.

366.

OF PAINTING.

Every part of the whole must be in proportion to the whole. Thus, if
a man is of a stout short figure he will be the same in all his
parts: that is with short and thick arms, wide thick hands, with
short fingers with their joints of the same character, and so on
with the rest. I would have the same thing understood as applying to
all animals and plants; in diminishing, [the various parts] do so in
due proportion to the size, as also in enlarging.

367.

OF THE AGREEMENT OF THE PROPORTION OF THE LIMBS.

And again, remember to be very careful in giving your figures limbs,
that they must appear to agree with the size of the body and
likewise to the age. Thus a youth has limbs that are not very
muscular not strongly veined, and the surface is delicate and round,
and tender in colour. In man the limbs are sinewy and muscular,
while in old men the surface is wrinkled, rugged and knotty, and the
sinews very prominent.

HOW YOUNG BOYS HAVE THEIR JOINTS JUST THE REVERSE OF THOSE OF MEN,
AS TO SIZE.

Little children have all the joints slender and the portions between
them are thick; and this happens because nothing but the skin covers
the joints without any other flesh and has the character of sinew,
connecting the bones like a ligature. And the fat fleshiness is laid
on between one joint and the next, and between the skin and the
bones. But, since the bones are thicker at the joints than between
them, as a mass grows up the flesh ceases to have that superfluity
which it had, between the skin and the bones; whence the skin clings
more closely to the bone and the limbs grow more slender. But since
there is nothing over the joints but the cartilaginous and sinewy
skin this cannot dry up, and, not drying up, cannot shrink. Thus,
and for this reason, children are slender at the joints and fat
between the joints; as may be seen in the joints of the fingers,
arms, and shoulders, which are slender and dimpled, while in man on
the contrary all the joints of the fingers, arms, and legs are
thick; and wherever children have hollows men have prominences.