The Notebooks of Leonardo Da Vinci, Volume 1 by Leonardo Da Vinci

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The main branches of the lower part bend down more than those above,
so as to be more oblique than those upper ones, and also because
they are larger and older.

409.

In general almost all the upright portions of trees curve somewhat
turning the convexity towards the South; and their branches are
longer and thicker and more abundant towards the South than towards
the North. And this occurs because the sun draws the sap towards
that surface of the tree which is nearest to it.

And this may be observed if the sun is not screened off by other
plants.

410.

The cherry-tree is of the character of the fir tree as regards its
ramification placed in stages round its main stem; and its branches
spring, 4 or five or 6 [together] opposite each other; and the tips
of the topmost shoots form a pyramid from the middle upwards; and
the walnut and oak form a hemisphere from the middle upwards.

411.

The bough of the walnut which is only hit and beaten when it has
brought to perfection...

[Footnote: The end of the text and the sketch in red chalk belonging
to it, are entirely effaced.]

The insertion of the leaves (412--419).

412.

OF THE INSERTION OF THE BRANCHES ON PLANTS.

Such as the growth of the ramification of plants is on their
principal branches, so is that of the leaves on the shoots of the
same plant. These leaves have [Footnote 6: _Quattro modi_ (four
modes). Only three are described in the text, the fourth is only
suggested by a sketch.

This passage occurs in MANZI'S edition of the Trattato, p. 399, but
without the sketches and the text is mutilated in an important part.
The whole passage has been commented on, from MANZI'S version, in
Part I of the _Nuovo Giornale Botanico Italiano_, by Prof. G.
UZIELLI (Florence 1869, Vol. I). He remarks as to the 'four modes':
"_Leonardo, come si vede nelle linie sententi da solo tre esempli.
Questa ed altre inessattezze fanno desiderare, sia esaminato di
nuovo il manoscritto Vaticano_". This has since been done by D.
KNAPP of Tubingen, and his accurate copy has been published by H.
LUDWIG, the painter. The passage in question occurs in his edition
as No. 833; and there also the drawings are wanting. The space for
them has been left vacant, but in the Vatican copy '_niente_' has
been written on the margin; and in it, as well as in LUDWIG'S and
MANZI'S edition, the text is mutilated.] four modes of growing one
above another. The first, which is the most general, is that the
sixth always originates over the sixth below [Footnote 8: _la sesta
di sotto. "Disposizione 2/5 o 1/5. Leonardo osservo probabilmente
soltanto la prima"_ (UZIELLl).]; the second is that two third ones
above are over the two third ones below [Footnote 10: _terze di
sotto: "Intende qui senza dubbio parlare di foglie decussate, in cui
il terzo verticello e nel piano del primo"_ (UZIELLI).]; and the
third way is that the third above is over the third below [Footnote
11: 3a _di sotto: "Disposizione 1/2"_ (UZIELLI).].

[Footnote: See the four sketches on the upper portion of the page
reproduced as fig. 2 on P1. XXVII.]

413.

A DESCRIPTION OF THE ELM.

The ramification of the elm has the largest branch at the top. The
first and the last but one are smaller, when the main trunk is
straight.

The space between the insertion of one leaf to the rest is half the
extreme length of the leaf or somewhat less, for the leaves are at
an interval which is about the 3rd of the width of the leaf.

The elm has more leaves near the top of the boughs than at the base;
and the broad [surface] of the leaves varies little as to [angle
and] aspect.

[Footnote: See Pl. XXVII, No. 3. Above the sketch and close under
the number of the page is the word '_olmo_' (elm).]

414.

In the walnut tree the leaves which are distributed on the shoots of
this year are further apart from each other and more numerous in
proportion as the branch from which this shoot springs is a young
one. And they are inserted more closely and less in number when the
shoot that bears them springs from an old branch. Its fruits are
borne at the ends of the shoots. And its largest boughs are the
lowest on the boughs they spring from. And this arises from the
weight of its sap which is more apt to descend than to rise, and
consequently the branches which spring from them and rise towards
the sky are small and slender [20]; and when the shoot turns towards
the sky its leaves spread out from it [at an angle] with an equal
distribution of their tips; and if the shoot turns to the horizon
the leaves lie flat; and this arises from the fact that leaves
without exception, turn their underside to the earth [29].

The shoots are smaller in proportion as they spring nearer to the
base of the bough they spring from.

[Footnote: See the two sketches on Pl XXVII, No. 4. The second
refers to the passage lines 20-30.]

415.

OF THE INSERTION OF THE LEAVES ON THE BRANCHES.

The thickness of a branch never diminishes within the space between
one leaf and the next excepting by so much as the thickness of the
bud which is above the leaf and this thickness is taken off from the
branch above [the node] as far as the next leaf.

Nature has so placed the leaves of the latest shoots of many plants
that the sixth leaf is always above the first, and so on in
succession, if the rule is not [accidentally] interfered with; and
this occurs for two useful ends in the plant: First that as the
shoot and the fruit of the following year spring from the bud or eye
which lies above and in close contact with the insertion of the leaf
[in the axil], the water which falls upon the shoot can run down to
nourish the bud, by the drop being caught in the hollow [axil] at
the insertion of the leaf. And the second advantage is, that as
these shoots develop in the following year one will not cover the
next below, since the 5 come forth on five different sides; and the
sixth which is above the first is at some distance.

416.

OF THE RAMIFICATIONS OF TREES AND THEIR FOLIAGE.

The ramifications of any tree, such as the elm, are wide and slender
after the manner of a hand with spread fingers, foreshortened. And
these are seen in the distribution [thus]: the lower portions are
seen from above; and those that are above are seen from below; and
those in the middle, some from below and some from above. The upper
part is the extreme [top] of this ramification and the middle
portion is more foreshortened than any other of those which are
turned with their tips towards you. And of those parts of the middle
of the height of the tree, the longest will be towards the top of
the tree and will produce a ramification like the foliage of the
common willow, which grows on the banks of rivers.

Other ramifications are spherical, as those of such trees as put
forth their shoots and leaves in the order of the sixth being placed
above the first. Others are thin and light like the willow and
others.

417.

You will see in the lower branches of the elder, which puts forth
leaves two and two placed crosswise [at right angles] one above
another, that if the stem rises straight up towards the sky this
order never fails; and its largest leaves are on the thickest part
of the stem and the smallest on the slenderest part, that is towards
the top. But, to return to the lower branches, I say that the leaves
on these are placed on them crosswise like [those on] the upper
branches; and as, by the law of all leaves, they are compelled to
turn their upper surface towards the sky to catch the dew at night,
it is necessary that those so placed should twist round and no
longer form a cross.

[Footnote: See Pl. XXVII, No. 5.]

418.

A leaf always turns its upper side towards the sky so that it may
the better receive, on all its surface, the dew which drops gently
from the atmosphere. And these leaves are so distributed on the
plant as that one shall cover the other as little as possible, but
shall lie alternately one above another as may be seen in the ivy
which covers the walls. And this alternation serves two ends; that
is, to leave intervals by which the air and sun may penetrate
between them. The 2nd reason is that the drops which fall from the
first leaf may fall onto the fourth or--in other trees--onto the
sixth.

419.

Every shoot and every fruit is produced above the insertion [in the
axil] of its leaf which serves it as a mother, giving it water from
the rain and moisture from the dew which falls at night from above,
and often it protects them against the too great heat of the rays of
the sun.

LIGHT ON BRANCHES AND LEAVES (420--422).

420.

That part of the body will be most illuminated which is hit by the
luminous ray coming between right angles.

[Footnote: See Pl. XXVIII, No. 1.]

421.

Young plants have more transparent leaves and a more lustrous bark
than old ones; and particularly the walnut is lighter coloured in
May than in September.

422.

OF THE ACCIDENTS OF COLOURING IN TREES.

The accidents of colour in the foliage of trees are 4. That is:
shadow, light, lustre [reflected light] and transparency.

OF THE VISIBILITY OF THESE ACCIDENTS.

These accidents of colour in the foliage of trees become confused at
a great distance and that which has most breadth [whether light or
shade, &c.] will be most conspicuous.

The proportions of light and shade in a leaf (423-426).

423.

OF THE SHADOWS OF A LEAF.

Sometimes a leaf has three accidents [of light] that is: shade,
lustre [reflected light] and transparency [transmitted light]. Thus,
if the light were at _n_ as regards the leaf _s_, and the eye at
_m_, it would see _a_ in full light, _b_ in shadow and _c_
transparent.

424.

A leaf with a concave surface seen from the under side and
up-side-down will sometimes show itself as half in shade, and half
transparent. Thus, if _o p_ is the leaf and the light _m_ and the
eye _n_, this will see _o_ in shadow because the light does not fall
upon it between equal angles, neither on the upper nor the under
side, and _p_ is lighted on the upper side and the light is
transmitted to its under side. [Footnote: See Pl. XXVIII, No. 2, the
upper sketch on the page. In the original they are drawn in red
chalk.]

425.

Although those leaves which have a polished surface are to a great
extent of the same colour on the right side and on the reverse, it
may happen that the side which is turned towards the atmosphere will
have something of the colour of the atmosphere; and it will seem to
have more of this colour of the atmosphere in proportion as the eye
is nearer to it and sees it more foreshortened. And, without
exception the shadows show as darker on the upper side than on the
lower, from the contrast offered by the high lights which limit the
shadows.

The under side of the leaf, although its colour may be in itself the
same as that of the upper side, shows a still finer colour--a colour
that is green verging on yellow--and this happens when the leaf is
placed between

426.

the eye and the light which falls upon it from the opposite side.

And its shadows are in the same positions as those were of the
opposite side. Therefore, O Painter! when you do trees close at
hand, remember that if the eye is almost under the tree you will see
its leaves [some] on the upper and [some] on the under side, and the
upper side will be bluer in proportion as they are seen more
foreshortened, and the same leaf sometimes shows part of the right
side and part of the under side, whence you must make it of two
colours.

Of the transparency of leaves (427-429).

427.

The shadows in transparent leaves seen from the under side are the
same shadows as there are on the right side of this leaf, they will
show through to the underside together with lights, but the lustre
[reflected light] can never show through.

428.

When one green has another [green] behind it, the lustre on the
leaves and their transparent [lights] show more strongly than in
those which are [seen] against the brightness of the atmosphere.

And if the sun illuminates the leaves without their coming between
it and the eye and without the eye facing the sun, then the
reflected lights and the transparent lights are very strong.

It is very effective to show some branches which are low down and
dark and so set off the illuminated greens which are at some
distance from the dark greens seen below. That part is darkest which
is nearest to the eye or which is farthest from the luminous
atmosphere.

429.

Never paint leaves transparent to the sun, because they are
confused; and this is because on the transparency of one leaf will
be seen the shadow of another leaf which is above it. This shadow
has a distinct outline and a certain depth of shade and sometimes is
[as much as] half or a third of the leaf which is shaded; and
consequently such an arrangement is very confused and the imitation
of it should be avoided.

The light shines least through a leaf when it falls upon it at an
acute angle.

The gradations of shade and colour in leaves (430-434).

430.

The shadows of plants are never black, for where the atmosphere
penetrates there can never be utter darkness.

431.

If the light comes from _m_ and the eye is at _n_ the eye will see
the colour of the leaves _a b_ all affected by the colour of _m_
--that is of the atmosphere; and _b c_ will be seen from the under
side as transparent, with a beautiful green colour verging on
yellow.

If _m_ is the luminous body lighting up the leaf _s_ all the eyes
that see the under side of this leaf will see it of a beautiful
light green, being transparent.

In very many cases the positions of the leaves will be without
shadow [or in full light], and their under side will be transparent
and the right side lustrous [reflecting light].

432.

The willow and other similar trees, which have their boughs lopped
every 3 or 4 years, put forth very straight branches, and their
shadow is about the middle where these boughs spring; and towards
the extreme ends they cast but little shade from having small leaves
and few and slender branches. Hence the boughs which rise towards
the sky will have but little shade and little relief; and the
branches which are at an angle from the horizon, downwards, spring
from the dark part of the shadow and grow thinner by degrees up to
their ends, and these will be in strong relief, being in gradations
of light against a background of shadow.

That tree will have the least shadow which has the fewest branches
and few leaves.

433.

OF DARK LEAVES IN FRONT OF TRANSPARENT ONES.

When the leaves are interposed between the light and the eye, then
that which is nearest to the eye will be the darkest, and the most
distant will be the lightest, not being seen against the atmosphere;
and this is seen in the leaves which are away from the centre of the
tree, that is towards the light.

[Footnote: See Pl. XXVIII, No. 2, the lower sketch.]

434.

OF THE LIGHTS ON DARK LEAVES.

The lights on such leaves which are darkest, will be most near to
the colour of the atmosphere that is reflected in them. And the
cause of this is that the light on the illuminated portion mingles
with the dark hue to compose a blue colour; and this light is
produced by the blueness of the atmosphere which is reflected in the
smooth surface of these leaves and adds to the blue hue which this
light usually produces when it falls on dark objects.

OF THE LIGHTS ON LEAVES OF A YELLOWISH GREEN.

But leaves of a green verging on yellow when they reflect the
atmosphere do not produce a reflection verging on blue, inasmuch as
every thing which appears in a mirror takes some colour from that
mirror, hence the blue of the atmosphere being reflected in the
yellow of the leaf appears green, because blue and yellow mixed
together make a very fine green colour, therefore the lustre of
light leaves verging on yellow will be greenish yellow.

A classification of trees according to their colours.

435.

The trees in a landscape are of various kinds of green, inasmuch as
some verge towards blackness, as firs, pines, cypresses, laurels,
box and the like. Some tend to yellow such as walnuts, and pears,
vines and verdure. Some are both yellowish and dark as chesnuts,
holm-oak. Some turn red in autumn as the service-tree, pomegranate,
vine, and cherry; and some are whitish as the willow, olive, reeds
and the like. Trees are of various forms ...

The proportions of light and shade in trees (436-440).

436.

OF A GENERALLY DISTRIBUTED LIGHT AS LIGHTING UP TREES.

That part of the trees will be seen to lie in the least dark shadow
which is farthest from the earth.

To prove it let _a p_ be the tree, _n b c_ the illuminated
hemisphere [the sky], the under portion of the tree faces the earth
_p c_, that is on the side _o_, and it faces a small part of the
hemisphere at _c d_. But the highest part of the convexity a faces
the greatest part of the hemisphere, that is _b c_. For this
reason--and because it does not face the darkness of the earth--it
is in fuller light. But if the tree has dense foliage, as the
laurel, arbutus, box or holm oak, it will be different; because,
although _a_ does not face the earth, it faces the dark [green] of
the leaves cut up by many shadows, and this darkness is reflected
onto the under sides of the leaves immediately above. Thus these
trees have their darkest shadows nearest to the middle of the tree.

437.

OF THE SHADOWS OF VERDURE.

The shadows of verdure are always somewhat blue, and so is every
shadow of every object; and they assume this hue more in proportion
as they are remote from the eye, and less in proportion as they are
nearer. The leaves which reflect the blue of the atmosphere always
present themselves to the eye edgewise.

OF THE ILLUMINATED PART OF VERDURE AND OF MOUNTAINS.

The illuminated portion, at a great distance, will appear most
nearly of its natural colour where the strongest light falls upon
it.

438.

OF TREES THAT ARE LIGHTED BY THE SUN AND BY THE ATMOSPHERE.

In trees that are illuminated [both] by the sun and the atmosphere
and that have leaves of a dark colour, one side will be illuminated
by the atmosphere [only] and in consequence of this light will tend
to blueness, while on the other side they will be illuminated by the
atmosphere and the sun; and the side which the eye sees illuminated
by the sun will reflect light.

439.

OF DEPICTING A FOREST SCENE.

The trees and plants which are most thickly branched with slender
branches ought to have less dark shadow than those trees and plants
which, having broader leaves, will cast more shadow.

440.

ON PAINTING.

In the position of the eye which sees that portion of a tree
illuminated which turns towards the light, one tree will never be
seen to be illuminated equally with the other. To prove this, let
the eye be _c_ which sees the two trees _b d_ which are illuminated
by the sun _a_; I say that this eye _c_ will not see the light in
the same proportion to the shade, in one tree as in the other.
Because, the tree which is nearest to the sun will display so much
the stronger shadow than the more distant one, in proportion as one
tree is nearer to the rays of the sun that converge to the eye than
the other; &c.

You see that the eye _c_ sees nothing of the tree _d_ but shadow,
while the same eye _c_ sees the tree _b_ half in light and half in
shade.

When a tree is seen from below, the eye sees the top of it as placed
within the circle made by its boughs[23].

Remember, O Painter! that the variety of depth of shade in any one
particular species of tree is in proportion to the rarity or density
of their branches.

[Footnote: The two lower sketches on the left of Pl XXVIII, No. 3,
refer to lines 21-23. The upper sketch has apparently been effaced
by Leonardo himself.]

The distribution of light and shade with reference to the position
of the spectator (441-443).

441.

The shadows of trees placed in a landscape do not display themselves
in the same position in the trees on the right hand and those on the
left; still more so if the sun is to the right or left. As is proved
by the 4th which says: Opaque bodies placed between the light and
the eye display themselves entirely in shadow; and by the 5th: The
eye when placed between the opaque body and the light sees the
opaque body entirely illuminated. And by the 6th: When the eye and
the opaque body are placed between darkness and light, it will be
seen half in shadow and half in light.

[Footnote: See the figure on the right hand side of Pl. XXVIII, No.
3. The first five lines of the text are written below the diagram
and above it are the last eight lines of the text, given as No.
461.]

442.

OF THE HERBS OF THE FIELD.

Of the plants which take a shadow from the plants which spring among
them, those which are on this side [in front] of the shadow have the
stems lighted up on a background of shadow, and the plants on which
the shadows fall have their stems dark on a light background; that
is on the background beyond the shadow.

OF TREES WHICH ARE BETWEEN THE EYE AND THE LIGHT.

Of the trees which are between the eye and the light the part in
front will be light; but this light will be broken by the
ramifications of transparent leaves--being seen from the under
side--and lustrous leaves--being seen from the upper side; and the
background below and behind will be dark green, being in shadow from
the front portion of the said tree. This occurs in trees placed
above the eye.

443.

FROM WHENCE TO DEPICT A LANDSCAPE

Landscapes should be represented so that the trees may be half in
light and half in shadow; but it is better to do them when the sun
is covered with clouds, for then the trees are lighted by the
general light of the sky, and the general darkness of the earth. And
then they are darkest in certain parts in proportion as those parts
are nearest to the middle of the tree and to the earth.

The effects of morning light (444-448).

444.

OF TREES TO THE SOUTH.

When the sun is in the east the trees to the South and to the North
have almost as much light as shadow. But a greater share of light in
proportion as they lie to the West and a greater share of shadow in
proportion as they lie to the East.

OF MEADOWS.

If the sun is in the East the verdure of the meadows and of other
small plants is of a most beautiful green from being transparent to
the sun; this does not occur in the meadows to the West, and in
those to the South and North the grass is of a moderately brilliant
green.

445.

OF THE 4 POINTS OF THE COMPASS [IN LANDSCAPES].

When the sun is in the East all the portions of plants lighted by it
are of a most lively verdure, and this happens because the leaves
lighted by the sun within the half of the horizon that is the
Eastern half, are transparent; and within the Western semicircle the
verdure is of a dull hue and the moist air is turbid and of the
colour of grey ashes, not being transparent like that in the East,
which is quite clear and all the more so in proportion as it is
moister.

The shadows of the trees to the East cover a large portion of them
and are darker in proportion as the foliage of the trees is thicker.

446.

OF TREES IN THE EAST.

When the sun is in the East the trees seen towards the East will
have the light which surrounds them all round their shadows,
excepting on the side towards the earth; unless the tree has been
pruned [below] in the past year. And the trees to the South and
North will be half in shade and half in light, and more or less in
shade or in light in proportion as they are more or less to the East
or to the West.

The [position of] the eye above or below varies the shadows and
lights in trees, inasmuch as the eye placed above sees the tree with
the little shadow, and the eye placed below with a great deal of
shadow.

The colour of the green in plants varies as much as their species.

447.

OF THE SHADOWS IN TREES.

The sun being in the East [to the right], the trees to the West [or
left] of the eye will show in small relief and almost imperceptible
gradations, because the atmosphere which lies between the eye and
those trees is very dense [Footnote 7: _per la 7a di questo_. This
possibly referred to something written on the seventh page of this
note book marked _G_. Unfortunately it has been cut out and lost.],
see the 7th of this--and they have no shade; for though a shadow
exists in every detail of the ramification, it results that the
images of the shade and light that reach the eye are confused and
mingled together and cannot be perceived on account of their
minuteness. And the principal lights are in the middle of the trees,
and the shadows to wards the edges; and their separation is shown by
the shadows of the intervals between the trees; but when the forests
are thick with trees the thin edges are but little seen.

448.

OF TREES TO THE EAST.

When the sun is in the East the trees are darker towards the middle
while their edges are light.

The effects of midday light.

449.

OBJECTS IN HIGH LIGHT SHOW BUT LITTLE, BUT BETWEEN LIGHT AND SHADOW
THEY STAND OUT WELL.

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