Life and Travels of Mungo Park in Central Africa by Mungo Park

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CHAPTER XXII.

_Observations concerning the state and sources of slavery in Africa._

A state of subordination, and certain inequalities of rank and condition,
are inevitable in every stage of civil society; but when this
subordination is carried to so great a length, that the persons and
services of one part of the community are entirely at the disposal of
another part, it may then be denominated a state of slavery; and in this
condition of life, a great body of the Negro inhabitants of Africa have
continued from the most early period of their history; with this
aggravation, that their children are born to no other inheritance.

The slaves in Africa, I suppose, are nearly in the proportion of three to
one to the freemen. They claim no reward for their services, except food
and clothing; and are treated with kindness or severity, according to the
good or bad disposition of their masters. Custom, however, has
established certain rules with regard to the treatment of slaves, which
it is thought dishonourable to violate. Thus, the domestic slaves, or
such as are born in a man's own house, are treated with more lenity than
those which are purchased with money. The authority of the master over
the domestic slave, as I have elsewhere observed, extends only to
reasonable correction; for the master cannot sell his domestic, without
having first brought him to a public trial, before the chief men of the
place.[20] But these restrictions on the power of the master extend not
to the case of prisoners taken in war, nor to that of slaves purchased
with money. All these unfortunate beings are considered as strangers and
foreigners, who have no right to the protection of the law, and may be
treated with severity, or sold to a stranger, according to the pleasure
of their owners. There are, indeed, regular markets, where slaves of this
description are bought and sold; and the value of a slave, in the eye of
an African purchaser, increases in proportion to his distance from his
native kingdom; for when slaves are only a few days' journey from the
place of their nativity, they frequently effect their escape; but when
one or more kingdoms intervene, escape being more difficult, they are
more readily reconciled to their situation. On this account, the unhappy
slave is frequently transferred from one dealer to another, until he has
lost all hopes of returning to his native kingdom. The slaves which are
purchased by the Europeans on the Coast are chiefly of this description;
a few of them are collected in the petty wars, hereafter to be described,
which take place near the Coast; but by far the greater number are
brought down in large caravans from the inland countries, of which many
are unknown, even by name, to the Europeans. The slaves which are thus
brought from the interior may be divided into two distinct classes;
_first_, such as were slaves from their birth having been born of
enslaved mothers: _secondly_, such as were born free, but who afterwards,
by whatever means, became slaves. Those of the first description are by
far the most numerous; for prisoners taken in war (at least such as are
taken in open and declared war, when one kingdom avows hostilities
against another) are generally of this description. The comparatively
small proportion of free people to the enslaved, throughout Africa, has
already been noticed; and it must be observed, that men of free condition
have many advantages over the slaves, even in war time. They are in
general better armed, and well mounted; and can either fight or escape
with some hopes of success: but the slaves who have only their spears and
bows, and of whom great numbers are loaded with baggage, become an easy
prey. Thus, when Mansong, King of Bambarra, made war upon Kaarta, (as I
have related in a former chapter,) he took in one day nine hundred
prisoners, of which number not more than seventy were free men. This
account I received from Daman Jumma, who had thirty slaves at Kemmoo, all
of whom were made prisoners by Mansong. Again, when a freeman is taken
prisoner, his friends will sometimes ransom him by giving two slaves in
exchange; but when a slave is taken, he has no hopes of such redemption.
To these disadvantages, it is to be added, that the Slatees, who purchase
slaves in the interior countries, and carry them down to the Coast for
sale, constantly prefer such as have been in that condition of life from
their infancy, well knowing that these have been accustomed to hunger and
fatigue, and are better able to sustain the hardships of a long and
painful journey, than free men; and on their reaching the Coast, if no
opportunity offers of selling them to advantage, they can easily be made
to maintain themselves by their labour; neither are they so apt to
attempt making their escape, as those who have once tasted the blessings
of freedom.

[20] In time of famine, the master is permitted to sell one or more
of his domestics, to purchase provisions for his family; and in case
of the master's insolvency, the domestic slaves are sometimes seized
upon by the creditors; and if the master cannot redeem them, they are
liable to be sold for payment of his debts. These are the only cases
that I recollect, in which the domestic slaves are liable to be sold,
without any misconduct or demerit of their own.

Slaves of the second description generally become such by one or other of
the following causes: 1. Captivity. 2. Famine. 3. Insolvency. 4. Crimes.
A freeman may, by the established customs of Africa, become a slave by
being taken in war. War is, of all others, the most productive source,
and was probably the origin of slavery; for when one nation had taken
from another a greater number of captives than could be exchanged on
equal terms, it is natural to suppose that the conquerors, finding it
inconvenient to maintain their prisoners, would compel them to labour; at
first, perhaps, only for their own support, but afterwards to support
their masters. Be this as it may, it is a known fact, that prisoners of
war in Africa are the slaves of the conquerors; and when the weak or
unsuccessful warrior begs for mercy beneath the uplifted spear of his
opponent, he gives up at the same time his claim to liberty; and
purchases his life at the expense of his freedom.

In a country, divided into a thousand petty states, mostly independent
and jealous of each other; where every freeman is accustomed to arms, and
fond of military achievements; where the youth who has practised the bow
and spear from his infancy, longs for nothing so much as an opportunity
to display his valour, it is natural to imagine that wars frequently
originate from very frivolous provocation. When one nation is more
powerful than another, a pretext is seldom wanting for commencing
hostilities. Thus the war between Kajaaga and Kasson was occasioned by
the detention of a fugitive slave; that between Bambarra and Kaarta by
the loss of a few cattle. Other cases of the same nature perpetually
occur, in which the folly or mad ambition of their princes, and the zeal
of their religious enthusiasts, give full employment to the scythe of
desolation.

The wars of Africa are of two kinds, which are distinguished by different
appellations; that species which bears the greatest resemblance to our
European contests is denominated _killi_, a word signifying "to call
out," because such wars are openly avowed, and previously declared. Wars
of this description in Africa commonly terminate, however, in the course
of a single campaign. A battle is fought; the vanquished seldom think of
rallying again; the whole inhabitants become panic-struck, and the
conquerors have only to bind the slaves, and carry off their plunder and
their victims. Such of the prisoners as, through age or infirmity, are
unable to endure fatigue, or are found unfit for sale, are considered as
useless, and I have no doubt are frequently put to death. The same fate
commonly awaits a chief, or any other person who has taken a very
distinguished part in the war. And here it may be observed, that,
notwithstanding this exterminating system, it is surprising to behold how
soon an African town is rebuilt and re-peopled. The circumstance arises
probably from this, that their pitched battles are few; the weakest know
their own situation, and seek safety in flight. When their country has
been desolated, and their ruined towns and villages deserted by the
enemy, such of the inhabitants as have escaped the sword, and the chain,
generally return, though with cautious steps, to the place of their
nativity; for it seems to be the universal wish of mankind, to spend the
evening of their days where they passed their infancy. The poor Negro
feels this desire in its full force. To him no water is sweet but what is
drawn from his own well; and no tree has so cool and pleasant a shade as
the _tabba_ tree[21] of his native village. When war compels him to
abandon the delightful spot in which he first drew his breath, and seek
for safety in some other kingdom, his time is spent in talking about the
country of his ancestors; and no sooner is peace restored than he turns
his back upon the land of strangers, rebuilds with haste his fallen
walls, and exults to see the smoke ascend from his native village.

[21] This is a large spreading tree, (a species of _sterculia_,)
under which the Bentang is commonly placed.

The other species of African warfare is distinguished by the appellation
of _tegria_, "plundering or stealing." It arises from a sort of
hereditary feud which the inhabitants of one nation or district bear
towards another. No immediate cause of hostility is assigned, or notice
of attack given; but the inhabitants of each watch every opportunity to
plunder and distress the objects of their animosity by predatory
excursions. These are very common, particularly about the beginning of
the dry season, when the labour of the harvest is over, and provisions
are plentiful. Schemes of vengeance are then meditated. The chief man
surveys the number and activity of his vassals, as they brandish their
spears at festivals; and elated with his own importance, turns his whole
thoughts towards revenging some depredation or insult, which either he or
his ancestors may have received from a neighbouring state.

Wars of this description are generally conducted with great secrecy. A
few resolute individuals, headed by some person of enterprise and
courage, march quietly through the woods, surprise in the night some
unprotected village, and carry off the inhabitants and their effects,
before their neighbours can come to their assistance. One morning during
my stay at Kamalia, we were all much alarmed by a party of this kind. The
King of Fooladoo's son, with five hundred horsemen, passed secretly
through the woods, a little to the southward of Kamalia, and on the
morning following plundered three towns belonging to Madigai, a powerful
chief in Jallonkadoo.

The success of this expedition encouraged the governor of Bangassi, a
town in Fooladoo, to make a second inroad upon another part of the same
country. Having assembled about two hundred of his people, he passed the
river Kokoro in the night, and carried off a great number of prisoners.
Several of the inhabitants who had escaped these attacks were afterwards
seized by the Mandingoes, as they wandered about in the woods, or
concealed themselves in the glens and strong places of the mountains.

These plundering excursions always produce speedy retaliation; and when
large parties cannot be collected for this purpose, a few friends will
combine together, and advance into the enemy's country, with a view to
plunder, or carry off the inhabitants. A single individual has been known
to take his bow and quiver, and proceed in like manner. Such an attempt
is doubtless in him an act of rashness; but when it is considered that in
one of these predatory wars, he has probably been deprived of his child,
or his nearest relation, his situation will rather call for pity than
censure. The poor sufferer, urged on by the feelings of domestic or
paternal attachment, and the ardour of revenge, conceals himself among
the bushes, until some young or unarmed person passes by. He then,
tiger-like, springs upon his prey; drags his victim into the thicket, and
in the night carries him off as a slave.

When a Negro has, by means like these, once fallen into the hands of his
enemies, he is either retained as the slave of his conqueror, or bartered
into a distant kingdom; for an African, when he has once subdued his
enemy, will seldom give him an opportunity of lifting up his hand against
him at a future period. A conqueror commonly disposes of his captives
according to the rank which they held in their native kingdom. Such of
the domestic slaves as appear to be of a mild disposition, and
particularly the young women, are retained as his own slaves. Others that
display marks of discontent are disposed of in a distant country; and
such of the freemen or slaves, as have taken an active part in the war,
are either sold to the Slatees or put to death. War, therefore, is
certainly the most general and most productive source of slavery; and the
desolations of war often (but not always) produce the second cause of
slavery, _famine_; in which case a freeman becomes a slave to avoid a
greater calamity.

Perhaps, by a philosophic and reflecting mind, death itself would
scarcely be considered as a greater calamity than slavery; but the poor
Negro, when fainting with hunger, thinks, like Esau of old, "Behold, I am
at the point to die, and what profit shall this birth-right do to me?"
There are many instances of free men voluntarily surrendering up their
liberty to save their lives. During a great scarcity, which lasted for
three years, in the countries of the Gambia, great numbers of people
became slaves in this manner. Dr. Laidley assured me that, at that time,
many free men came and begged, with great earnestness, _to be put upon
his slave chain_, to save them from perishing of hunger. Large families
are very often exposed to absolute want; and as the parents have almost
unlimited authority over their children, it frequently happens, in all
parts of Africa, that some of the latter are sold to purchase provisions
for the rest of the family. When I was at Jarra, Daman Jumma pointed out
to me three young slaves which he had purchased in this manner. I have
already related another instance which I saw at Wonda; and I was informed
that in Fooladoo, at that time, it was a very common practice.

The third cause of slavery is _insolvency_. Of all the offences (if
insolvency may be so called) to which the laws of Africa have affixed the
punishment of slavery, this is the most common. A Negro trader commonly
contracts debts on some mercantile speculation, either from his
neighbours, to purchase such articles as will sell to advantage in a
distant market, or from the European traders on the Coast; payment to be
made in a given time. In both cases, the situation of the adventurer is
exactly the same. If he succeeds, he may secure an independency. If he is
unsuccessful, his person and services are at the disposal of another; for
in Africa, not only the effects of the insolvent, but even the insolvent
himself, are sold to satisfy the lawful demands of his creditors.[22]

[22] When a Negro takes up goods on credit from any of the
Europeans on the Coast, and does not make payment at the time
appointed, the European is authorized, by the laws of the country, to
seize upon the debtor himself, if he can find him; or if he cannot be
found, on any person of his family; or in the last resort, on any
native of the same kingdom. The person thus seized on is detained
while his friends are sent in quest of the debtor. When he is found,
a meeting is called of the chief people of the place, and the debtor
is compelled to ransom his friend by fulfilling his engagements. If
he is unable to do this, his person is immediately secured and sent
down to the Coast, and the other released. If the debtor cannot be
found, the person seized on is obliged to pay double the amount of
the debt, or is himself sold into slavery. I was given to understand,
however, that this part of the law is seldom enforced.

The fourth cause above enumerated, is _the commission of crimes, on which
the laws of the country affix slavery as a punishment_. In Africa, the
only offences of this class are murder, adultery, and witchcraft; and I
am happy to say, that they did not appear to me to be common. In cases of
murder, I was informed, that the nearest relation of the deceased had it
in his power, after conviction, either to kill the offender with his own
hand, or sell him into slavery. When adultery occurs, it is generally
left to the option of the person injured, either to sell the culprit, or
accept such a ransom for him as he may think equivalent to the injury he
has sustained. By witchcraft is meant pretended magic, by which the lives
or health of persons are affected; in other words, it is the
administering of poison. No trial for this offence, however, came under
my observation while I was in Africa, and I therefore suppose that the
crime, and its punishment, occur but very seldom.

When a freeman has become a slave by any one of the causes before
mentioned, he generally continues so for life, and his children (if they
are born of an enslaved mother) are brought up in the same state of
servitude. There are, however, a few instances of slaves obtaining their
freedom, and sometimes even with the consent of their masters; as by
performing some singular piece of service, or by going to battle, and
bringing home two slaves as a ransom; but the common way of regaining
freedom is by escape; and when slaves have once set their minds on
running away, they often succeed. Some of them will wait for years before
an opportunity presents itself, and during that period show no signs of
discontent. In general, it may be remarked, that slaves who come from a
hilly country, and have been much accustomed to hunting and travel, are
more apt to attempt their escape than such as are born in a flat country,
and have been employed in cultivating the land.

Such are the general outlines of that system of slavery which prevails in
Africa; and it is evident, from its nature and extent, that it is a
system of no modern date. It probably had its origin in the remote ages
of antiquity, before the Mahomedans explored a path across the Desert.
How far it is maintained and supported by the slave traffic, which for
two hundred years the nations of Europe have carried on with the natives
of the Coast, it is neither within my province nor in my power to
explain. If my sentiments should be required concerning the effect which
a discontinuance of that commerce would produce on the manners of the
natives, I should have no hesitation in observing, that in the present
unenlightened state of their minds, my opinion is, the effect would
neither be so extensive or beneficial, as many wise and worthy persons
fondly expect.

CHAPTER XXIII.

_Of gold-dust, and the manner in which it is collected.--Process of
washing it.--Its value in Africa,--Of ivory.--Surprise of the Negroes at
the eagerness of the Europeans for this commodity.--Scattered teeth
frequently picked up in the woods.--Mode of hunting the elephant.--Some
reflections on the unimproved state of the country, &c._

Those valuable commodities, gold and ivory, (the next objects of our
inquiry,) have probably been found in Africa from the first ages of the
world. They are reckoned among its most important productions in the
earliest records of its history.

It has been observed, that gold is seldom or never discovered, except in
_mountainous_ and _barren_ countries. Nature, it is said, thus making
amends in one way, for her penuriousness in the other. This, however, is
not wholly true. Gold is found in considerable quantities throughout
every part of Manding; a country which is indeed hilly, but cannot
properly be called mountainous, much less barren. It is also found in
great plenty in Jallonkadoo, (particularly about Boori,) another hilly,
but by no means an infertile country. It is remarkable, that in the place
last mentioned, (Boori,) which is situated about four days' journey to
the south-west of Kamalia, the salt market is often supplied, at the same
time, with rock-salt from the Great Desert, and sea-salt from the Rio
Grande; the price of each, at this distance from its source, being nearly
the same; and the dealers in each, whether Moors from the north, or
Negroes from the west, are invited thither by the same motives, that of
bartering their salt for gold.

The gold of Manding, so far as I could learn, is never found in any
matrix or vein, but always in small grains, nearly in a pure state, from
the size of a pin's head to that of a pea; scattered through a large body
of sand or clay; and in this state it is called by the Mandingoes _sanoo
munko_, "gold powder," It is, however, extremely probable, by what I
could learn of the situation of the ground, that most of it has
originally been washed down by repeated torrents from the neighbouring
hills. The manner in which it is collected is nearly as follows:--

About the beginning of December, when the harvest is over, and the
streams and torrents have greatly subsided, the Mansa, or chief man of
the town, appoints a day to begin _sanoo koo_, "gold washing;" and the
women are sure to have themselves in readiness by the time appointed. A
hoe, or spade, for digging up the sand, two or three calabashes for
washing it in, and a few quills for containing the gold dust, are all the
implements necessary for the purpose. On the morning of their departure,
a bullock is killed for the first day's entertainment, and a number of
prayers and charms are used to ensure success; for a failure on that day
is thought a bad omen. The Manga of Kamalia, with fourteen of his people,
were, I remember, so much disappointed in their first day's washing, that
a very few of them had resolution to persevere; and the few that did had
but very indifferent success: which indeed is not much to be wondered at,
for, instead of opening some untried place, they continue to dig and wash
in the same spot where they had dug and washed for years; and where, of
course, but few large grains could be left.

The washing the sands of the streams is by far the easiest way of
obtaining the gold-dust; but in most places the sands have been so
narrowly searched before, that unless the stream takes some new course,
the gold is found but in small quantities. While some of the party are
busied in washing the sands, others employ themselves farther up the
torrent, where the rapidity of the stream has carried away all the clay,
sand, &c. and left nothing but small pebbles. The search among these is a
very troublesome task. I have seen women who have had the skin worn off
the tops of their fingers in this employment. Sometimes, however, they
are rewarded by finding pieces of gold, which they call _sanoo birro_,
"gold-stones," that amply repay them for their trouble. A woman and her
daughter, inhabitants of Kamalia, found in one day two pieces of this
kind; one of five drachms, and the other of three drachms, weight. But
the most certain and profitable way of washing is practised in the height
of the dry season, by digging a deep pit, like a draw-well, near some
hill which has previously been discovered to contain gold. The pit is dug
with small spades or corn hoes, and the earth is drawn up in large
calabashes. As the Negroes dig through the different strata of clay or
sand, a calabash or two of each is washed, by way of experiment; and in
this manner the labourers proceed, until they come to a stratum
containing gold; or until they are obstructed by rocks, or inundated by
water. In general, when they come to a stratum of fine reddish sand, with
small black specks therein, they find gold in some proportion or other,
and send up large calabashes full of the sand, for the women to wash; for
though the pit is dug by the men, the gold is always washed by the women,
who are accustomed from their infancy to a similar operation, in
separating the husks of corn from the meal.

As I never descended into any of these pits, I cannot say in what manner
they are worked under ground. Indeed, the situation in which I was placed
made it necessary for me to be cautious not to incur the suspicion of the
natives, by examining too far into the riches of their country; but the
manner of separating the gold from the sand is very simple, and is
frequently performed by the women in the middle of the town; for when the
searchers return from the valleys in the evening, they commonly bring
with them each a calabash or two of sand, to be washed by such of the
females as remain at home. The operation is simply as follows:--

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