The South Pole, Volume 2 by Roald Amundsen

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From Hobart to Cape Horn we saw no ice.

After passing the Falkland Islands we had a head wind, so that the
last part of the trip was nothing to boast of.

On the night of May 21 we passed Montevideo, where the Chief had
arrived a few hours before. From here up the River La Plata we
went so slowly on account of head wind that we did not anchor in
the roads of Buenos Aires till the afternoon of the 23rd, almost
exactly at the same time as the Chief landed at Buenos Aires. When
I went ashore next morning and met Mr. P. Christophersen, he was in
great good-humour. "This is just like a fairy tale," he said; and it
could not be denied that it was an amusing coincidence. The Chief,
of course, was equally pleased.

On the 25th, the Argentine National Fete, the Fram was moored at the
same quay that we had left on October 5, 1911. At our departure there
were exactly seven people on board to say good-bye, but, as far as I
could see, there were more than this when we arrived; and I was able
to make out, from newspapers and other sources, that in the course of
a couple of months the third Fram Expedition had grown considerably
in popularity.

In conclusion I will give one or two data. Since the Fram left
Christiania on June 7, 1910, we have been two and a half times round
the globe; the distance covered is about 54,400 nautical miles; the
lowest reading of the barometer during this time was 27.56 inches (700
millimetres) in March, 1911, in the South Pacific, and the highest
30.82 inches (783 millimetres) in October, 1911, in the South Atlantic.

On June 7, 1912, the second anniversary of our leaving Christiania,
all the members of the Expedition, except the Chief and myself, left
for Norway, and the first half of the Expedition was thus brought to
a fortunate conclusion.

CHAPTER I

The "Fram"

By Commodore Christian Blom

Colin Archer says in his description of the Fram, in Fridtjof Nansen's
account of the Norwegian Arctic Expedition, 1893 -- 1896, that the
successful result of an expedition such as that planned and carried
out by Dr. Nansen in the years 1893 -- 1896 must depend on the care
with which all possible contingencies are foreseen, and precautions
taken to meet them, and the choice of every detail of the equipment
with special regard to the use to which it will be put. To no part
of the equipment, he says, could this apply with greater force than
to the ship which was to carry Dr. Nansen and his companions on their
adventurous voyage.

Colin Archer then built the ship -- Fram was her name -- and she
showed -- first on Fridtjof Nansen's famous voyage, and afterwards
on Sverdrup's long wintering expedition in Ellesmere Land, that
she answered her purpose completely, nay, she greatly exceeded the
boldest expectations.

Then Roald Amundsen decided to set out on a voyage not less adventurous
than the two former, and he looked about for a suitable ship. It
was natural that he should think of the Fram, but she was old --
about sixteen years -- and had been exposed to many a hard buffet;
it was said that she was a good deal damaged by decay.

Roald Amundsen, however, did not allow himself to be discouraged
by these misgivings, but wished to see for himself what kind of
a craft the Fram was after her two commissions. He therefore came
down to Horten with Colin Archer on June 1, 1908, and made a thorough
examination of the vessel. He then, in the spring of 1909, requested
the Naval Dockyard at Horten to repair the ship and carry out the
alterations he considered necessary for his enterprise.

Before giving an account of the repairs and alterations to the vessel
in 1909 -- 1910, we shall briefly recapitulate, with the author's
permission, a part of the description of the Fram in Fridtjof Nansen's
work, especially as regards the constructive peculiarities of the
vessel.

The problem which it was sought to solve in the construction of the
Fram was that of providing a ship which could survive the crushing
embrace of the Arctic drift-ice. To fit her for this was the object
before which all other considerations had to give way.

But apart from the question of mere strength of construction, there
were problems of design and model which, it was thought, would play an
important part in the attainment of the chief object. It is sometimes
prudent in an encounter to avoid the full force of a blow instead of
resisting it, even if it could be met without damage; and there was
reason to think that by a judicious choice of model something might
be done to break the force of the ice-pressure, and thus lessen its
danger. Examples of this had been seen in small Norwegian vessels that
had been caught in the ice near Spitzbergen and Novaya Zemlya. It often
happens that they are lifted right out of the water by the pressure
of the ice without sustaining serious damage; and these vessels are
not particularly strong, but have, like most small sailing-ships,
a considerable dead rising and sloping sides. The ice encounters
these sloping sides and presses in under the bilge on both sides,
until the ice-edges meet under the keel, and the ship is raised up
into the bed that is formed by the ice itself.

In order to turn this principle to account, it was decided to depart
entirely from the usual flat-bottomed frame-section, and to adopt
a form that would offer no vulnerable point on the ship's side, but
would cause the increasing horizontal pressure of the ice to effect
a raising of the ship, as described above. In the construction of
the Fram it was sought to solve this problem by avoiding plane or
concave surfaces, thus giving the vessel as far as possible round and
full lines. Besides increasing the power of resistance to external
pressure, this form has the advantage of making it easy for the ice
to glide along the bottom in any direction.

The Fram was a three-masted fore-and-aft schooner with an auxiliary
engine of 200 indicated horse-power, which was calculated to give her
a speed of 6 knots, when moderately loaded, with a coal consumption
of 2.8 tons a day.

The vessel was designed to be only large enough to carry the necessary
coal-supply, provisions, and other equipment for a period of five
years, and to give room for the crew.

Her principal dimensions are:

Length of keel 103.3 English feet
Length of waterline 119'
Length over all 128'
Beam on waterline 34'
Greatest beam 36'
Depth 17.2'

Her displacement, with a draught of 15.6 feet, is 800 tons. The
measurements are taken to the outside of the planks, but do not
include the ice-skin. By Custom-house measurement she was found to
be 402 gross tons register, and 807 tons net.

The ship, with engines and boilers, was calculated to weigh about 420
tons. With the draught above mentioned, which gives a freeboard of 3
feet, there would thus be 380 tons available for cargo. This weight
was actually exceeded by 100 tons, which left a freeboard of only
20 inches when the ship sailed on her first voyage. This additional
immersion could only have awkward effects when the ship came into the
ice, as its effect would then be to retard the lifting by the ice,
on which the safety of the ship was believed to depend in a great
measure. Not only was there a greater weight to lift, but there was
a considerably greater danger of the walls of ice, that would pile
themselves against the ship's sides, falling over the bulwarks and
covering the deck before the ice began to raise her. The load would,
however, be lightened by the time the ship was frozen fast. Events
showed that she was readily lifted when the ice-pressure set in, and
that the danger of injury from falling blocks of ice was less than
had been expected. The Fram's keel is of American elm in two lengths,
14 inches square; the room and space is 2 feet. The frame-timbers
are almost all of oak obtained from the Naval Dockyard at Horten,
where they had lain for many years, thus being perfectly seasoned. The
timbers were all grown to shape. The frames consist of two tiers of
timbers everywhere, each timber measuring 10 to 11 inches fore and aft;
the two tiers of timbers are fitted together and bolted, so that they
form a solid and compact whole. The joints of the frame-timbers are
covered with iron plates. The lining consists of pitch-pine in good
lengths and of varying thickness from 4 to 6 inches. The keelson is
also of pitch-pine, in two layers, one above the other; each layer 15
inches square from the stem to the engine-room. Under the boiler and
engine there was only room for one keelson. There are two decks. The
beams of the main-deck are of American or German oak, those of the
lower deck and half-deck of pitch-pine and Norwegian fir. All the deck
planks are of Norwegian fir, 4 inches in the main-deck and 3 inches
elsewhere. The beams are fastened to the ship's sides by knees of
Norwegian spruce, of which about 450 were used. Wooden knees were,
as a rule, preferred to iron ones, as they are more elastic. A good
many iron knees were used, however, where wood was less suitable. In
the boiler and engine room the beams of the lower deck had to be
raised about 3 feet to give sufficient height for the engines. The
upper deck was similarly raised from the stern-post to the mainmast,
forming a half-deck, under which the cabins were placed. On this
half-deck, immediately forward of the funnel, a deck-house was
placed, arranged as a chart-house, from which two companions (one
on each side) led down to the cabins. Besides the ice-skin, there
is a double layer of outside planking of oak. The two first strakes
(garboard strakes), however, are single, 7 inches thick, and are
bolted both to the keel and to the frame-timbers. The first (inner)
layer of planks is 8 inches thick, and is only fastened with nails;
outside this comes a layer of 4-inch planks, fastened with oak trenails
and through bolts, as usual. The two top strakes are single again, and
6 inches thick. The ice-skin is of greenheart, and covers the whole
ship's side from the keel to 18 inches from the sheer strake. It is
only fastened with nails and jagged bolts. Each layer of planks was
caulked and pitched before the next one was laid. Thus only about 3
or 4 inches of the keel projects below the planking, and this part of
the keel is rounded off so as not to hinder the ice from passing under
the ship's bottom. The intervals between the timbers were filled with
a mixture of coal-tar, pitch, and sawdust, heated together and put in
warm. The ship's side thus forms a compact mass varying in thickness
from 28 to 32 inches. As a consequence of all the intervals between
the timbers being filled up, there is no room for bilge-water under
the lining. A loose bottom was therefore laid a few inches above the
lining on each side of the keelson. In order to strengthen the ship's
sides still more, and especially to prevent stretching, iron braces
were placed on the lining, running from the clamps of the top deck
down to well past the floor-timbers.

The stem consists of three massive oak beams, one inside the other,
forming together 4 feet of solid oak fore and aft, with a breadth of
15 inches. The three external plankings as well as the lining are all
rabbeted into the stem. The propeller-post is in two thicknesses,
placed side by side, and measures 26 inches athwart-ship and 14
inches fore and aft. It will be seen from the plan that the overhang
aft runs out into a point, and that there is thus no transom. To
each side of the stern-post is fitted a stout stern-timber parallel
to the longitudinal midship section, forming, so to speak, a double
stern-post, and the space between them forms a well, which goes right
up through the top deck. The rudder-post is placed in the middle
of this well, and divides it into two parts, one for the propeller
and one for the rudder. In this way it is possible to lift both the
rudder and the screw out of the water. The rudder is so hung that
the rudder-stock, which is cylindrical, turns on its own axis, to
prevent the rudder being jammed if the well should be filled with
ice. Aft of the rudder-well the space between the stern-timbers is
filled with solid wood, and the whole is securely bolted together with
bolts running athwart-ship. The frame-timbers join the stern-timbers
in this part, and are fastened to them by means of knees. The stem
and stern-post are connected to the keelson and to the keel by stout
knees of timber, and both the ship's sides are bound together with
solid breasthooks and crutches of wood or iron.

Although the Fram was not specially built for ramming, it was probable
that now and then she would be obliged to force her way through the
ice. Her bow and stern were therefore shod in the usual way. On the
forward side of the stem a segment-shaped iron was bolted from the
bobstay-bolt to some way under the keel. Outside this iron plates (3 x
3/4 inches) were fastened over the stem, and for 6 feet on each side
of it. These iron plates were placed close together, and thus formed
a continuous armour-plating to a couple of feet from the keel. The
sharp edge of the stern was protected in the same way, and the lower
sides of the well were lined with thick iron plates. The rudder-post,
which owing to its exposed position may be said to form the Achilles'
heel of the ship, was strengthened with three heavy pieces of iron,
one in the opening for the screw and one on each side of the two posts
and the keel, and bolted together with bolts running athwart-ship.

Extraordinary precautions were taken for strengthening the ship's
sides, which were particularly exposed to destruction by ice-pressure,
and which, on account of their form, compose the weakest part of the
hull. These precautions will best be seen in the sections (Figs. 3
and 4). Under each beam in both decks were placed diagonal stays of
fir (6 x 10 inches), almost at right angles to the ship's sides, and
securely fastened to the sides and to the beams by wooden knees. There
are 68 of these stays distributed over the ship. In addition, there
are under the beams three rows of vertical stanchions between decks,
and one row in the lower hold from the keelson. These are connected
to the keelson, to the beams, and to each other by iron bands. The
whole of the ship's interior is thus filled with a network of braces
and stays, arranged in such a way as to transfer and distribute the
pressure from without, and give rigidity to the whole construction. In
the engine and boiler room it was necessary to modify the arrangement
of stays, so as to give room for the engines and boiler. All the iron,
with the exception of the heaviest forgings, is galvanized.

When Otto Sverdrup was to use the Fram for his Polar expedition,
he had a number of alterations carried out. The most important of
these consisted in laying a new deck in the fore part of the ship,
from the bulkhead forward of the engine-room to the stem, at a height
of 7 feet 4 inches (to the upper side of the planks) above the old
fore-deck. The space below the new deck was fitted as a fore-cabin,
with a number of state-rooms leading out of it, a large workroom,
etc. The old chart-house immediately forward of the funnel was removed,
and in its place a large water-tank was fitted. The foremast was
raised and stepped in the lower deck. A false keel, 10 inches deep
and 12 inches broad, was placed below the keel. A number of minor
alterations were also carried out.

After the Fram returned in 1902 from her second expedition under
Captain Sverdrup, she was sent down to Horten to be laid up in the
Naval Dockyard.

Not long after the vessel had arrived at the dockyard, Captain Sverdrup
proposed various repairs and alterations. The repairs were carried
out in part, but the alterations were postponed pending a decision
as to the future employment of the vessel.

The Fram then lay idle in the naval harbour until 1905, when she was
used by the marine artillery as a floating magazine. In the same
year a good deal of the vessel's outfit (amongst other things all
her sails and most of her rigging) was lost in a fire in one of the
naval storehouses, where these things were stored.

In 1903 the ship's keel and stem (which are of elm and oak) were
sheathed with zinc, while the outer sheathing (ice-skin), which is of
greenheart, was kept coated with coal-tar and copper composition. In
1907 the whole outer sheathing below the water-line was covered with
zinc; this was removed in 1910 when the ship was prepared for her
third commission under Roald Amundsen.

In 1907 a thorough examination of the vessel was made, as it was
suspected that the timber inside the thick cork insulation that
surrounded the cabins had begun to decay.

On previous expeditions the cabins, provision hold aft, and workrooms
forward of the fore-cabin, had been insulated with several thicknesses
of wooden panelling. The interstices were filled with finely-divided
cork, alternately with reindeer hair and thick felt and linoleum. In
the course of years damp had penetrated into the non-conducting
material, with the result that fungus and decay had spread in the
surrounding woodwork. Thus it was seen during the examination in 1907
that the panelling and ceiling of the cabins in question were to a
great extent rotten or attacked by fungus. In the same way the under
side of the upper deck over these cabins was partly attacked by fungus,
as were its beams, knees, and carlings. The lower deck, on the other
hand, was better preserved. The filling-in timbers of spruce or fir
between the frame-timbers in the cabins were damaged by fungus, while
the frame-timbers themselves, which were of oak, were good. The outer
lining outside the insulated parts was also somewhat damaged by fungus.

In the coal-bunkers over the main-deck the spruce knees were partly
rotten, as were some of the beams, while the lining was here fairly
good.

The masts and main-topmast were somewhat attacked by decay, while
the rest of the spars were good.

During and after the examination all the panelling and insulation
was removed, the parts attacked by fungus or decay were also removed,
and the woodwork coated with carbolineum or tar. The masts and various
stores and fittings were taken ashore at the same time.

It was found that the rest of the vessel-that is, the whole of the
lower part of the hull right up to the cabin deck-was perfectly sound,
and as good as new. Nor was there any sign of strain anywhere. It is
difficult to imagine any better proof of the excellence of the vessel's
construction; after two protracted expeditions to the most northern
regions to which any ship has ever penetrated, where the vessel was
often exposed to the severest ice-pressure, and in spite of her being
(in 1907) fifteen years old, the examination showed that her actual
hull, the part of the ship that has to resist the heavy strain of
water and ice, was in just as good condition as when she was new.

The vessel was then left in this state until, as already mentioned,
Roald Amundsen and her builder, Colin Archer, came down to the dockyard
on June 1, 1908, and with the necessary assistance made an examination
of her.

After some correspondence and verbal conferences between Roald Amundsen
and the dockyard, the latter, on March 9, 1909, made a tender for the
repairs and alterations to the Fram. The repairs consisted of making
good the damage to the topsides referred to above.

The alterations were due in the first instance to the circumstance
that the steam-engine and boiler (the latter had had its flues burnt
out on Sverdrup's expedition) were to be replaced by an oil-motor; as
a consequence of this the coal-bunkers would disappear, while, on the
other hand, a large number of oil-tanks, capable of containing about
90 tons of oil, were to be put in. It was also considered desirable
to rig square-sails on the foremast in view of the great distances
that were to be sailed on the proposed expedition.

The present arrangement of the vessel will best be followed by
referring to the elevation and plan (Figs. 1 and 2).

In the extreme after-part of the lower hold is placed the 180
horse-power Diesel engine, surrounded by its auxiliary machinery
and air-reservoirs.

In addition, some of the tanks containing the fuel itself are placed
in the engine-room (marked O); the other tanks shown in the engine-room
(marked 9) serve for storing lubricating oil. The existing engine-room
was formerly the engine and boiler room, with coal-bunkers on both
sides in the forward part. Forward of the watertight bulkhead of the
engine-room we have, in the lower hold, the main store of oil-fuel,
contained in tanks (marked O) of various sizes, on account of their
having to be placed among the numerous diagonal stays. The tanks are
filled and emptied by means of a pump and a petroleum hose through a
manhole in the top, over which, again, are hatches in the deck above;
no connecting pipes are fitted between the different tanks, for fear
they might be damaged by frost or shock, thus involving a risk of
losing oil. The main supply tank for fuel is placed over the forward
side of the engine-room, where it is supported on strong steel girders;
inside this tank, again, there are two smaller ones -- settling tanks
-- from which the oil is conveyed in pipes to the engine-pumps. The
main tank is of irregular shape -- as will be seen from the drawing
-- since a square piece is taken out of its starboard after-corner
for a way down into the engine-room. Besides this way down, an
emergency way leads up from the engine-room, right aft, to one of the
after-cabins. The oil hold is closed forward by a watertight bulkhead,
which goes up to the main-deck. The hold forward of the oil-supply
is unaltered, and serves for stowing cargo (mainly provisions),
as does the hold above the oil-supply and below the main-deck.

On the main-deck right aft we now find a space arranged on each side
of the well for the propeller and rudder; the lower part of this
space is occupied by two tanks for lamp-oil, and above the tanks is
a thin partition, which forms the floor of two small sail-rooms, with
hatches to the deck above. Around the mizzenmast is the after-saloon,
with eight cabins leading out of it. From the forward end of the
after-saloon two passages lead to the large workroom amidships. These
passages run past what were formerly coal-bunkers, but are now arranged
as cabins, intended only to be used in milder climates, as they are
not provided with any special insulation. From the port passage a
door leads to the engine-room companion. In the after-part of the
large workroom is the galley. This room is entirely lined with zinc,
both on walls and ceiling (on account of the danger of fire), while the
deck is covered with lead, on which tiles are laid in cement. Forward
of the galley is the main hatch, and two large water-tanks are fitted
here, one on each side. The remainder of the workroom affords space
for carpenter's benches, turning-lathes, a forge, vices, etc. From
the workroom two doors lead into the fore-saloon with its adjoining
cabins. Amundsen's cabin is the farthest forward on the starboard side,
and communicates with an instrument-room. From the fore-saloon a door
leads out forward, past a sixth cabin.

In the space forward on the main-deck we have the fore-hatch, and
by the side of this a room entirely lined with zinc plates, which
serves for storing furs. Forward of the fur store is fitted a 15
horse-power one-cylinder Bolinder motor for working the capstan; the
main features of its working will be seen in the drawing. There are
two independent transmissions: by belt and by chain. The former is
usually employed. The chain transmission was provided as a reserve,
since it was feared that belt-driving might prove unserviceable in
a cold climate. This fear, however, has hitherto been ungrounded.

Forward of the motor there is a large iron tank to supply water for
cooling it. In the same space are chain-pipes to the locker below
and the heel of the bowsprit. This space also serves as cable-tier.

On the upper deck we find aft, the opening of the rudder-well and
that of the propeller-well, covered with gratings. A piece was added
to the lower part of the rudder to give more rudder area.

Forward of the propeller-well comes the reserve steering-gear, almost
in the same position formerly occupied by the only steering-gear; the
ordinary steering-gear is now moved to the bridge. The old engine-room
companion aft is now removed, and forward of the after-wheel is only
the skylight of the after-saloon. Up through the latter comes the
exhaust-pipe of the main engine. Forward of and round the mizzenmast
is the bridge, which is partly formed by the roofs of the large
chart-house and laboratory amidships and the two houses on each
side. The chart-house occupies the place of the old boiler-room
ventilator, and abuts on the fore-deck. (It is thus a little aft of
the place occupied by the chart-house on Nansen's expedition.) It is
strongly built of timbers standing upright, securely bolted to the
deck. On both sides of this timber work there are panels, 2 inches
thick on the outside and 1 inch on the inside, and the space between
is filled with finely-divided cork. Floor and roof are insulated in
a similar way, as is also the door; the windows are double, of thick
plate-glass. Inside the chart-house, besides the usual fittings for
its use as such, there is a companion-way to the engine-room, and
a hatch over the manhole to the main supply tank for oil-fuel. The
opening in the deck has a hatch, made like the rest of the deck (in
two thicknesses, with cork insulation between); the intention is to
cut off the engine-room altogether, and remove the entrance of this
companion during the drift in the ice through the Polar sea. The side
houses are constructed of iron, and are not panelled; they are intended
for w.c. and lamp-room. On the roof of the chart-house are the main
steering-gear and the engine-room telegraph. On the port side, on the
forward part of the after-deck, a Downton pump is fitted, which can
either be worked by hand or by a small motor, which also serves to
drive the sounding-machine, and is set up on the after-deck. Forward
of the starboard side house is the spare rudder, securely lashed to
deck and bulwarks. On each side of the chart-house a bridge leads to
the fore-deck, with ways down to the workroom and fore-saloon. On
the fore-deck, a little forward of the mainmast, we find the two
ship's pumps proper, constructed of wood. The suction-pipe is of
wood, covered on the outside with lead, so as to ]prevent leakage
through possible cracks in the wood; the valves are of leather,
and the piston of wood, with a leather covering. The pump-action is
the usual nickel action, that was formerly general on our ships, and
is still widely used on smacks. These simple pumps have been shown by
experience to work better than any others in severe cold. The fore-deck
also has skylights over the fore-saloon, the main and fore hatches,
and finally the capstan. This is of the ordinary horizontal type,
from Pusnes Engineering Works; it is driven by the motor below, as
already mentioned. The capstan can also be used as a winch, and it
can be worked by hand-power.

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