The South Pole, Volumes 1 and 2 by Roald Amundsen

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The stem consists of three massive oak beams, one inside the other,
forming together 4 feet of solid oak fore and aft, with a breadth of
15 inches. The three external plankings as well as the lining are all
rabbeted into the stem. The propeller-post is in two thicknesses,
placed side by side, and measures 26 inches athwart-ship and 14
inches fore and aft. It will be seen from the plan that the overhang
aft runs out into a point, and that there is thus no transom. To
each side of the stern-post is fitted a stout stern-timber parallel
to the longitudinal midship section, forming, so to speak, a double
stern-post, and the space between them forms a well, which goes right
up through the top deck. The rudder-post is placed in the middle
of this well, and divides it into two parts, one for the propeller
and one for the rudder. In this way it is possible to lift both the
rudder and the screw out of the water. The rudder is so hung that
the rudder-stock, which is cylindrical, turns on its own axis, to
prevent the rudder being jammed if the well should be filled with
ice. Aft of the rudder-well the space between the stern-timbers is
filled with solid wood, and the whole is securely bolted together with
bolts running athwart-ship. The frame-timbers join the stern-timbers
in this part, and are fastened to them by means of knees. The stem
and stern-post are connected to the keelson and to the keel by stout
knees of timber, and both the ship's sides are bound together with
solid breasthooks and crutches of wood or iron.

Although the Fram was not specially built for ramming, it was probable
that now and then she would be obliged to force her way through the
ice. Her bow and stern were therefore shod in the usual way. On the
forward side of the stem a segment-shaped iron was bolted from the
bobstay-bolt to some way under the keel. Outside this iron plates (3 x
3/4 inches) were fastened over the stem, and for 6 feet on each side
of it. These iron plates were placed close together, and thus formed
a continuous armour-plating to a couple of feet from the keel. The
sharp edge of the stern was protected in the same way, and the lower
sides of the well were lined with thick iron plates. The rudder-post,
which owing to its exposed position may be said to form the Achilles'
heel of the ship, was strengthened with three heavy pieces of iron,
one in the opening for the screw and one on each side of the two posts
and the keel, and bolted together with bolts running athwart-ship.

Extraordinary precautions were taken for strengthening the ship's
sides, which were particularly exposed to destruction by ice-pressure,
and which, on account of their form, compose the weakest part of the
hull. These precautions will best be seen in the sections (Figs. 3
and 4). Under each beam in both decks were placed diagonal stays of
fir (6 x 10 inches), almost at right angles to the ship's sides, and
securely fastened to the sides and to the beams by wooden knees. There
are 68 of these stays distributed over the ship. In addition, there
are under the beams three rows of vertical stanchions between decks,
and one row in the lower hold from the keelson. These are connected
to the keelson, to the beams, and to each other by iron bands. The
whole of the ship's interior is thus filled with a network of braces
and stays, arranged in such a way as to transfer and distribute the
pressure from without, and give rigidity to the whole construction. In
the engine and boiler room it was necessary to modify the arrangement
of stays, so as to give room for the engines and boiler. All the iron,
with the exception of the heaviest forgings, is galvanized.

When Otto Sverdrup was to use the Fram for his Polar expedition,
he had a number of alterations carried out. The most important of
these consisted in laying a new deck in the fore part of the ship,
from the bulkhead forward of the engine-room to the stem, at a height
of 7 feet 4 inches (to the upper side of the planks) above the old
fore-deck. The space below the new deck was fitted as a fore-cabin,
with a number of state-rooms leading out of it, a large workroom,
etc. The old chart-house immediately forward of the funnel was removed,
and in its place a large water-tank was fitted. The foremast was
raised and stepped in the lower deck. A false keel, 10 inches deep
and 12 inches broad, was placed below the keel. A number of minor
alterations were also carried out.

After the Fram returned in 1902 from her second expedition under
Captain Sverdrup, she was sent down to Horten to be laid up in the
Naval Dockyard.

Not long after the vessel had arrived at the dockyard, Captain Sverdrup
proposed various repairs and alterations. The repairs were carried
out in part, but the alterations were postponed pending a decision
as to the future employment of the vessel.

The Fram then lay idle in the naval harbour until 1905, when she was
used by the marine artillery as a floating magazine. In the same
year a good deal of the vessel's outfit (amongst other things all
her sails and most of her rigging) was lost in a fire in one of the
naval storehouses, where these things were stored.

In 1903 the ship's keel and stem (which are of elm and oak) were
sheathed with zinc, while the outer sheathing (ice-skin), which is of
greenheart, was kept coated with coal-tar and copper composition. In
1907 the whole outer sheathing below the water-line was covered with
zinc; this was removed in 1910 when the ship was prepared for her
third commission under Roald Amundsen.

In 1907 a thorough examination of the vessel was made, as it was
suspected that the timber inside the thick cork insulation that
surrounded the cabins had begun to decay.

On previous expeditions the cabins, provision hold aft, and workrooms
forward of the fore-cabin, had been insulated with several thicknesses
of wooden panelling. The interstices were filled with finely-divided
cork, alternately with reindeer hair and thick felt and linoleum. In
the course of years damp had penetrated into the non-conducting
material, with the result that fungus and decay had spread in the
surrounding woodwork. Thus it was seen during the examination in 1907
that the panelling and ceiling of the cabins in question were to a
great extent rotten or attacked by fungus. In the same way the under
side of the upper deck over these cabins was partly attacked by fungus,
as were its beams, knees, and carlings. The lower deck, on the other
hand, was better preserved. The filling-in timbers of spruce or fir
between the frame-timbers in the cabins were damaged by fungus, while
the frame-timbers themselves, which were of oak, were good. The outer
lining outside the insulated parts was also somewhat damaged by fungus.

In the coal-bunkers over the main-deck the spruce knees were partly
rotten, as were some of the beams, while the lining was here fairly
good.

The masts and main-topmast were somewhat attacked by decay, while
the rest of the spars were good.

During and after the examination all the panelling and insulation
was removed, the parts attacked by fungus or decay were also removed,
and the woodwork coated with carbolineum or tar. The masts and various
stores and fittings were taken ashore at the same time.

It was found that the rest of the vessel-that is, the whole of the
lower part of the hull right up to the cabin deck-was perfectly sound,
and as good as new. Nor was there any sign of strain anywhere. It is
difficult to imagine any better proof of the excellence of the vessel's
construction; after two protracted expeditions to the most northern
regions to which any ship has ever penetrated, where the vessel was
often exposed to the severest ice-pressure, and in spite of her being
(in 1907) fifteen years old, the examination showed that her actual
hull, the part of the ship that has to resist the heavy strain of
water and ice, was in just as good condition as when she was new.

The vessel was then left in this state until, as already mentioned,
Roald Amundsen and her builder, Colin Archer, came down to the dockyard
on June 1, 1908, and with the necessary assistance made an examination
of her.

After some correspondence and verbal conferences between Roald Amundsen
and the dockyard, the latter, on March 9, 1909, made a tender for the
repairs and alterations to the Fram. The repairs consisted of making
good the damage to the topsides referred to above.

The alterations were due in the first instance to the circumstance
that the steam-engine and boiler (the latter had had its flues burnt
out on Sverdrup's expedition) were to be replaced by an oil-motor; as
a consequence of this the coal-bunkers would disappear, while, on the
other hand, a large number of oil-tanks, capable of containing about
90 tons of oil, were to be put in. It was also considered desirable
to rig square-sails on the foremast in view of the great distances
that were to be sailed on the proposed expedition.

The present arrangement of the vessel will best be followed by
referring to the elevation and plan (Figs. 1 and 2).

In the extreme after-part of the lower hold is placed the 180
horse-power Diesel engine, surrounded by its auxiliary machinery
and air-reservoirs.

In addition, some of the tanks containing the fuel itself are placed
in the engine-room (marked O); the other tanks shown in the engine-room
(marked 9) serve for storing lubricating oil. The existing engine-room
was formerly the engine and boiler room, with coal-bunkers on both
sides in the forward part. Forward of the watertight bulkhead of the
engine-room we have, in the lower hold, the main store of oil-fuel,
contained in tanks (marked O) of various sizes, on account of their
having to be placed among the numerous diagonal stays. The tanks are
filled and emptied by means of a pump and a petroleum hose through a
manhole in the top, over which, again, are hatches in the deck above;
no connecting pipes are fitted between the different tanks, for fear
they might be damaged by frost or shock, thus involving a risk of
losing oil. The main supply tank for fuel is placed over the forward
side of the engine-room, where it is supported on strong steel girders;
inside this tank, again, there are two smaller ones -- settling tanks
-- from which the oil is conveyed in pipes to the engine-pumps. The
main tank is of irregular shape -- as will be seen from the drawing
-- since a square piece is taken out of its starboard after-corner
for a way down into the engine-room. Besides this way down, an
emergency way leads up from the engine-room, right aft, to one of the
after-cabins. The oil hold is closed forward by a watertight bulkhead,
which goes up to the main-deck. The hold forward of the oil-supply
is unaltered, and serves for stowing cargo (mainly provisions),
as does the hold above the oil-supply and below the main-deck.

On the main-deck right aft we now find a space arranged on each side
of the well for the propeller and rudder; the lower part of this
space is occupied by two tanks for lamp-oil, and above the tanks is
a thin partition, which forms the floor of two small sail-rooms, with
hatches to the deck above. Around the mizzenmast is the after-saloon,
with eight cabins leading out of it. From the forward end of the
after-saloon two passages lead to the large workroom amidships. These
passages run past what were formerly coal-bunkers, but are now arranged
as cabins, intended only to be used in milder climates, as they are
not provided with any special insulation. From the port passage a
door leads to the engine-room companion. In the after-part of the
large workroom is the galley. This room is entirely lined with zinc,
both on walls and ceiling (on account of the danger of fire), while the
deck is covered with lead, on which tiles are laid in cement. Forward
of the galley is the main hatch, and two large water-tanks are fitted
here, one on each side. The remainder of the workroom affords space
for carpenter's benches, turning-lathes, a forge, vices, etc. From
the workroom two doors lead into the fore-saloon with its adjoining
cabins. Amundsen's cabin is the farthest forward on the starboard side,
and communicates with an instrument-room. From the fore-saloon a door
leads out forward, past a sixth cabin.

In the space forward on the main-deck we have the fore-hatch, and
by the side of this a room entirely lined with zinc plates, which
serves for storing furs. Forward of the fur store is fitted a 15
horse-power one-cylinder Bolinder motor for working the capstan; the
main features of its working will be seen in the drawing. There are
two independent transmissions: by belt and by chain. The former is
usually employed. The chain transmission was provided as a reserve,
since it was feared that belt-driving might prove unserviceable in
a cold climate. This fear, however, has hitherto been ungrounded.

Forward of the motor there is a large iron tank to supply water for
cooling it. In the same space are chain-pipes to the locker below
and the heel of the bowsprit. This space also serves as cable-tier.

On the upper deck we find aft, the opening of the rudder-well and
that of the propeller-well, covered with gratings. A piece was added
to the lower part of the rudder to give more rudder area.

Forward of the propeller-well comes the reserve steering-gear, almost
in the same position formerly occupied by the only steering-gear; the
ordinary steering-gear is now moved to the bridge. The old engine-room
companion aft is now removed, and forward of the after-wheel is only
the skylight of the after-saloon. Up through the latter comes the
exhaust-pipe of the main engine. Forward of and round the mizzenmast
is the bridge, which is partly formed by the roofs of the large
chart-house and laboratory amidships and the two houses on each
side. The chart-house occupies the place of the old boiler-room
ventilator, and abuts on the fore-deck. (It is thus a little aft of
the place occupied by the chart-house on Nansen's expedition.) It is
strongly built of timbers standing upright, securely bolted to the
deck. On both sides of this timber work there are panels, 2 inches
thick on the outside and 1 inch on the inside, and the space between
is filled with finely-divided cork. Floor and roof are insulated in
a similar way, as is also the door; the windows are double, of thick
plate-glass. Inside the chart-house, besides the usual fittings for
its use as such, there is a companion-way to the engine-room, and
a hatch over the manhole to the main supply tank for oil-fuel. The
opening in the deck has a hatch, made like the rest of the deck (in
two thicknesses, with cork insulation between); the intention is to
cut off the engine-room altogether, and remove the entrance of this
companion during the drift in the ice through the Polar sea. The side
houses are constructed of iron, and are not panelled; they are intended
for w.c. and lamp-room. On the roof of the chart-house are the main
steering-gear and the engine-room telegraph. On the port side, on the
forward part of the after-deck, a Downton pump is fitted, which can
either be worked by hand or by a small motor, which also serves to
drive the sounding-machine, and is set up on the after-deck. Forward
of the starboard side house is the spare rudder, securely lashed to
deck and bulwarks. On each side of the chart-house a bridge leads to
the fore-deck, with ways down to the workroom and fore-saloon. On
the fore-deck, a little forward of the mainmast, we find the two
ship's pumps proper, constructed of wood. The suction-pipe is of
wood, covered on the outside with lead, so as to ]prevent leakage
through possible cracks in the wood; the valves are of leather,
and the piston of wood, with a leather covering. The pump-action is
the usual nickel action, that was formerly general on our ships, and
is still widely used on smacks. These simple pumps have been shown by
experience to work better than any others in severe cold. The fore-deck
also has skylights over the fore-saloon, the main and fore hatches,
and finally the capstan. This is of the ordinary horizontal type,
from Pusnes Engineering Works; it is driven by the motor below, as
already mentioned. The capstan can also be used as a winch, and it
can be worked by hand-power.

The Fram carries six boats: one large decked boat (29 x 9 x 4 feet)
-- one of the two large boats carried on Nansen's expedition --
placed between the mainmast and the foremast, over the skylight;
three whale-boats (20 x 6 feet), and one large and one small pram; the
two last are carried on davits as shown in the drawing. One of these
whale-boats was left behind on the Ice Barrier, where it was buried
in snow when the ship left. It was brought ashore that the wintering
party might have a boat at their disposal after the Fram had sailed.

For warming the vessel it is intended to use only petroleum. For
warming the laboratory (chart-house) there is an arrangement by which
hot air from the galley is brought up through its forward wall.

The vessel was provided with iron chain plates bolted to the timbers
above the ice-skin. The mizzenmast is new. There was a crack in
the beam that forms the support for the mizzenmast; it was therefore
strengthened with two heavy iron plates, secured by through-bolts. Two
strong steel stanchions were also placed on each side of the engine,
carried down to the frame-timbers. The old mizzenmast has been
converted into a bowsprit and jib-boom in one piece. There are now
standing gaffs on all three masts. The sail area is about 6,640
square feet.

All the cabins are insulated in the same way as before, though it
has been found possible to simplify this somewhat. In general the
insulation consists of:

1. In the cabins, against the ship's side and under the upper deck,
there is first a layer of cork, and over that a double panelling of
wood with tarred felt between.

2. Above the orlop deck aft there is a layer of cork, and above this
a floor of boards covered with linoleum.

3. Under the orlop deck forward there is wooden panelling, with
linoleum over the deck.

Bulkheads abutting on parts of the ship that are not warmed consist
of three thicknesses of boards or planks with various non-conducting
materials, such as cork or felt, between them.

When the vessel was docked before leaving Horten, the zinc sheathing
was removed, as already stated, since fears were entertained that it
would be torn by the ice, and would then prevent the ice from slipping
readily under the bottom during pressure. The vessel has two anchors,
but the former port anchor has been replaced by a considerably
heavier one (1 ton 1 1/2 hundredweight), with a correspondingly
heavier chain-cable. This was done with a special view to the voyage
round Cape Horn.

In order to trim the ship as much as possible by the stern, which
was desirable on account of her carrying a weather helm, a number
of heavy spare stores, such as the old port anchor and its cable,
were stowed aft, and the extreme after-peak was filled with cement
containing round pieces of iron punched out of plates.

Along the railing round the fore-deck strong netting has been placed
to prevent the dogs falling overboard. For the upper deck a loose
wooden grating has been made, so that the dogs shall not lie on
the wet deck. Awnings are provided over the whole deck, with only
the necessary openings for working the ship. In this way the dogs
have been given dry and, as far as possible, cool quarters for the
voyage through the tropics. It is proposed to use the ship's spars as
supports for a roof of boards, to be put up during the drift through
the ice as a protection against falling masses of ice.

The Fram's new engine is a direct reversible Marine-Polar-Motor,
built by the Diesel Motor Co., of Stockholm. It is a Diesel engine,
with four working and two air-pump cylinders, and develops normally
at 280 revolutions per minute 180 effective horse-power, with a
consumption of oil of about 7 3/4 ounces per effective horse-power
per hour. With this comparatively small consumption, the Fram's fuel
capacity will carry her much farther than if she had a steam-engine,
a consideration of great importance in her forthcoming long voyage
in the Arctic Sea. With her oil capacity of about 90 tons, she will
thus be able to go uninterruptedly for about 2,273 hours, or about
95 days. If we reckon her speed under engine power alone at 4 1/2
knots, she will be able to go about 10,000 nautical miles without
replenishing her oil-supply. It is a fault in the new engine that
its number of revolutions is very high, which necessitates the use
of a propeller of small diameter (5 feet 9 inches), and thus of low
efficiency in the existing conditions. This is the more marked on
account of the unusual thickness of the Fram's propeller-post, which
masks the propeller to a great extent. The position of the engine will
be seen in Fig. 1. The exhaust gases from the engine are sent up by
a pipe through the after-saloon, through its skylight, and up to a
large valve on the bridge; from this valve two horizontal pipes run
along the after side of the bridge, one to each side: By means of the
valve the gases can be diverted to one side or the other, according
to the direction of the wind, Besides the usual auxiliary engines,
the main engine drives a large centrifugal bilge-pump, an ordinary
machine bilge-pump, and a fan for use in the tropics.

When the Fram left Christiania in the spring of 1910, after taking
her cargo on board, she drew 17 feet forward and 19 feet 5 inches
aft. This corresponds to a displacement (measured outside the ice-skin)
of about 1,100 tons. The ice-skin was then 12 1/2 inches above the
waterline amidships.

CHAPTER II

Remarks on the Meteorological Observations at Framheim

By B. J. Birkeland

On account of the improvised character of the South Polar Expedition,
the meteorological department on the Fram was not so complete as it
ought to have been. It had not been possible to provide the aerological
outfit at the time of sailing, and the meteorologist of the expedition
was therefore left behind in Norway. But certain things were wanting
even to complete the equipment of an ordinary meteorological station,
such as minimum thermometers and the necessary instructions that should
have accompanied one or two of the instruments. Fortunately, among
the veterans of the expedition there were several practised observers,
and, notwithstanding all drawbacks, a fine series of observations was
obtained during ten months' stay in winter-quarters on the Antarctic
continent. These observations will provide a valuable supplement to
the simultaneous records of other expeditions, especially the British
in McMurdo Sound and the German in Weddell Sea, above all as regards
the hypsometer observations (for the determination of altitude)
on sledge journeys. It may be hoped, in any case, that it will be
possible to interpolate the atmospheric pressure at sea-level in all
parts of the Antarctic continent that were traversed by the sledging
expeditions. For this reason the publication of a provisional working
out of the observations is of great importance at the present moment,
although the general public will, perhaps, look upon the long rows
of figures as tedious and superfluous. The complete working out of
these observations can only be published after a lapse of some years.

As regards the accuracy of the figures here given, it must be noted
that at present we know nothing about possible alterations in the
errors of the different instruments, as it will not be possible to
have the instruments examined and compared until we arrive at San
Francisco next year. We have provisionally used the errors that
were determined at the Norwegian Meteorological Institute before
the expedition sailed; it does not appear, however, that they have
altered to any great extent.

The meteorological outfit on the Fram consisted of the following
instruments and apparatus:

Three mercury barometers, namely:

One normal barometer by Fuess, No. 361 .
One Kew standard barometer by Adie, No. 889.
One Kew marine barometer by Adie, No. 764.

Five aneroid barometers:

One large instrument with thermometer attached, without name
or number.
Two pocket aneroids by Knudsen, Copenhagen, one numbered 1,503.
Two pocket aneroids by Cary, London, Nos. 1,367 and 1,368,
for altitudes up to 5,000 metres (16,350 feet).
Two hypsometers by Casella, with several thermometers.

Mercury thermometers:

Twelve ordinary standard (psychrometer-) thermometers,
divided to fifths of a degree (Centigrade).
Ten ordinary standard thermometers, divided to degrees.
Four sling thermometers, divided to half degrees.
Three maximum thermometers, divided to degrees.
One normal thermometer by Mollenkopf, No. 25.

Toluene thermometers:

Eighteen sling thermometers, divided to degrees.
Three normal thermometers-by Tounelot, No. 4,993, and Baudin,
Nos. 14,803 and 14,804.
Two torsion hair hygrometers of Russeltvedt's construction,
Nos. 12 and 14.
One cup and cross anemometer of Professor Mohn's construction,
with spare cross.
One complete set of precipitation gauges, with Nipher's shield,
gauges for snow density, etc.