Scientific American Supplement, No. 385, May 19, 1883 by Various
V >>
Various >> Scientific American Supplement, No. 385, May 19, 1883
Pages:
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
6 |
7 |
8 |
9 Produced by Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, and Distributed Proofreaders
[Illustration]
SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 385
NEW YORK, MAY 19, 1883
Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XV., No. 385.
Scientific American established 1845
Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.
Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.
* * * * *
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
I. NATURAL HISTORY.--Fishes of Cuban Waters.
Panax Victoriæ.--1 Illustration.
A Note on Sap. By Prof. ATTFIELD.
The Crow.--Illustration.
The Praying Mantis and its Allies.--Illustration.
May Flies.--2 illustrations.
II. TECHNOLOGY.--A Quick Way to Ascertain the Focus
of a Lens.--1 diagram.
The History of the Pianoforte. By A.J.
HIPKINS.--Different parts of a pianoforte and
their uses.--Inventor of the instrument and his
"action."--First German piano-maker.--Square
pianos.--Pianos of Broadwood, Backers, Stodart,
and Erard.--Introduction of metal tubes, plates,
bars, and frames.--Improvements of Meyer, the
Steinways, Chickerings, and others.--Upright
pianos.--Several figures.
III. MEDICINE AND HYGIENE.--The Poisonous Properties of
Nitrate of Silver and a Recent Case of Poisoning
with the Same. By H. A. MOTT, Jr.
Tubercle Bacilli in Sputa.
Malaria. By Dr. JAMES H. SALISBURY.--VIII. Local
observations.--Effect of the sun on ague
plants.--Investigations into the cause of
ague.--Notes on marsh miasm.--Analysis of malari a
plant.--Numerous figures.
IV. ENGINEERING.--Torpedo Boats.--Full page illustration.
Pictet's High Speed Boat.--Several figures and
diagrams.
Initial Stability Indicator for Ships.--4 figures.
V. ELECTRICITY, LIGHT, AND HEAT.--Scrivanow's Chloride of
Silver Pile.--2 figures.
On the Luminosity of Flame.
VI. CHEMISTRY.--New Bleaching Process, with Regeneration of
the Baths Used. By M. BONNEVILLE.
Detection of Magenta, Archil, and Cudbear in Wine.
VII. ARCHITECTURE.--The Pantheon at Rome.
VIII. MISCELLANEOUS.--The Raphael Celebration at
Rome.--3 Illustrations.
Great International Fisheries Exhibition.--1 figure.
Puppet Shows among the Greeks.--3 illustrations.
* * * * *
THE RAPHAEL CELEBRATION AT ROME.
The most famous of Italian painters, Raffaele Sanzio, whom the world
commonly calls Raphael, was born at Urbino, in Umbria, part of the Papal
States, four hundred years ago. The anniversary was celebrated, on March
28, 1883, both in that town and in Rome, where he lived and worked, and
where he died in 1520, with processions, orations, poetical recitations,
performances of music, exhibitions of pictures, statues, and busts,
visits to the tomb of the great artist in the Pantheon, and with
banquets and other festivities. The King and Queen of Italy were present
at the Capitol of Rome (the Palace of the City Municipality) where one
part of these proceedings took place.
[Illustration: SKELETON OF RAPHAEL AS FOUND IN HIS TOMB IN THE PANTHEON,
IN 1833.]
At ten o'clock in the morning a procession set forth from the Capitol to
the Pantheon, to render homage at the tomb of Raphael. It was arranged
in the following order: Two Fedeli, or municipal ushers, in picturesque
costumes of the sixteenth century, headed the procession, carrying two
laurel wreaths fastened with ribbons representing the colors of Rome,
red and dark yellow; a company of Vigili, the Roman firemen; the
municipal band; the standard of Rome, carried by an officer of the
Vigili; and the banners of the fourteen quarters of the city. Then came
the Minister of Public Instruction and the Minister of Public Works; the
Syndic of Rome, Duke Leopoldo Torlonia; and the Prefect of Rome, the
Marquis Gravina. The members of the communal giunta, the provincial
deputation, and the communal and provincial council followed the
principal authorities. Next in order came the presidents of Italian and
foreign academies and art institutions, the president of the academy of
the Licei, the representatives of all the foreign academies, the members
of the academy of St. Luke, the general direction of antiquities, the
members of the Permanent Commission of Fine Arts, the members of the
Communal Archæological Commission, the guardians of the Pantheon, the
members of the International Artistic Club, presided over by Prince
Odescalchi; the members of the art schools, the pupils of the San
Michele and Termini schools with their bands, the pupils of the
elementary and female art schools. The procession was rendered more
interesting by the presence of many Italian and foreign artists. Having
arrived at the Pantheon, the chief personages took their place in front
of Raphael's tomb. Every visitor to Rome knows this tomb, which is
situated behind the third chapel on the left of the visitor entering the
Pantheon. The altar was endowed by Raphael, and behind it is a picture
of the Virgin and Child, known as the Madonna del Sasso, which was
executed at his request and was produced by Lorenzo Lotto, a friend and
pupil of the great painter. Above the inscription usually hang a few
small pictures, which were presented by very poor artists who thought
themselves cured by prayers at the shrine. This is confirmed by a crutch
hanging up close to the pilaster. The bones of Raphael are laid in this
tomb since 1520, with an epitaph recording the esteem in which he was
held by Popes Julius II. and Leo X.; but they have not always been
allowed to lie undisturbed. On Sept. 14, 1833, the tomb was opened to
inspect the mouldering skeleton, of which drawings were made, and are
reproduced in two of our illustrations. The proceedings at the tomb in
the recent anniversary visit were brief and simple; a number of laurel
or floral wreaths were suspended there, one sent by the president and
members of the Royal Academy of London; and the Syndic of Rome unveiled
a bronze bust of Raphael, which had been placed in a niche at the side.
[Illustration: THE ANCIENT ROMAN TEMPLE NOW KNOWN AS THE PANTHEON, AT
ROME.]
This ceremony at the Pantheon was concluded by all visitors writing
their names on two albums which had been placed near Victor Emmanuel's
tomb and Raphael's tomb. The commemoration in the hall of the Horatii
and Curiatii in the Capitol was a great success, their Majesties, the
Ministers, the members of the diplomatic body, and a distinguished
assembly being present. Signor Quirino Leoni read an admirable discourse
on Raphael and his times.
The ancient city of Urbino, Raphael's birthplace, has fallen into
decay, but has remembered its historic renown upon this occasion.
The representatives of the Government and municipal authorities, and
delegates of the leading Italian cities went in procession to visit the
house where Raphael was born. Commemoration speeches were pronounced
in the great hall of the ducal palace by Signor Minghetti and Senator
Massarani. The commemoration ended with a cantata composed by Signor
Rossi. The Via Raffaelle was illuminated in the evening, and a gala
spectacle was given at the Sanzio Theater. Next day the exhibition of
designs for a monument to Raphael was inaugurated at Urbino, and at
night a great torchlight procession took place.--_Illustrated London
News_.
[Illustration: RAPHAEL'S TOMB IN THE PANTHEON, AT ROME.]
* * * * *
THE PANTHEON AT ROME.
The edifice known as the Pantheon, in Rome, is one of the best preserved
specimens of Roman architecture. It was erected in the year 26 B.C.,
and is therefore now about one thousand nine hundred years old. It was
consecrated as a Christian church in the year 608. Its rotunda is 143
ft. in diameter and also 143 ft. high. Its portico is remarkable for the
elegance and number of its Corinthian columns.
* * * * *
Señor Felipe Poey, a famous ichthyologist of Cuba, has recently brought
out an exhaustive work upon the fishes of Cuban waters, in which he
describes and depicts no fewer than 782 distinct varieties, although he
admits some doubts about 105 kinds, concerning which he has yet to get
more exact information. There can be no question, however, he claims,
about the 677 species remaining, more than half of which he first
described in previous works upon this subject, which has been the study
of his life.
* * * * *
THE GREAT INTERNATIONAL FISHERIES EXHIBITION.
Her Majesty the Queen has appointed the 12th of May for the opening
of the International Fisheries Exhibition, which an influential and
energetic committee, under the active presidency of the Prince of Wales,
had developed to a magnitude undreamt of by those concerned in its early
beginnings.
The idea of an _international_ Fisheries Exhibition arose out of the
success of the show of British fishery held at Norwich a short time ago;
and the president and executive of the latter formed the nucleus of the
far more powerful body by whom the present enterprise has been brought
about.
The plan of the buildings embraces the whole of the twenty-two acres of
the Horticultural Gardens; the upper half, left in its usual state of
cultivation, will form a pleasant lounge and resting place for visitors
in the intervals of their study of the collections. This element of
garden accommodation was one of the most attractive features at the
Paris Exhibition of 1878.
As the plan of the buildings is straggling and extended, and widely
separates the classes, the most convenient mode of seeing the show will
probably be found by going through the surrounding buildings first, and
then taking the annexes as they occur.
[Illustration: THE INTERNATIONAL FISHERIES EXHIBITION, LONDON.
BLOCK PLAN.--A, Switzerland; B, Isle of Man; C, Bahamas and W.I.
Islands; D, Hawaii; E, Poland; F, Portugal; G, Austria; H, Germany; I,
France; J, Italy; K, Greece; L, China; M, India and Ceylon; N, Straits
Settlements; O, Japan; P, Tasmania; Q, New South Wales.--Scale 200 feet
to the inch.]
On entering the main doors in the Exhibition Road, we pass through the
Vestibule to the Council Room of the Royal Horticultural Society,
which has been decorated for the reception of marine paintings, river
subjects, and fish pictures of all sorts, by modern artists.
Leaving the Fine Arts behind, the principal building of the Exhibition
is before us--that devoted to the deep sea fisheries of Great Britain.
It is a handsome wooden structure, 750 feet in length, 50 feet wide, and
30 feet at its greatest height. The model of this, as well as of the
other temporary wooden buildings, is the same as that of the annexes of
the great Exhibition of 1862.
On our left are the Dining Rooms with the kitchens in the rear. The
third room, set apart for cheap fish dinners (one of the features of the
Exhibition), is to be decorated at the expense of the Baroness Burdett
Coutts, and its walls are to be hung with pictures lent by the
Fishmongers' Company, who have also furnished the requisite chairs and
tables, and have made arrangements for a daily supply of cheap fish,
while almost everything necessary to its maintenance (forks, spoons,
table-linen, etc.) will be lent by various firms.
The apsidal building attached is to be devoted to lectures on the
cooking of fish.
Having crossed the British Section, and turning to the right and passing
by another entrance, we come upon what will be to all one of the most
interesting features of the Exhibition, and to the scientific student
of ichthyology a collection of paramount importance. We allude to the
Western Arcade, in which are placed the Aquaria, which have in their
construction given rise to more thoughtful care and deliberation than
any other part of the works. On the right, in the bays, are the twenty
large asphalt tanks, about 12 feet long, 3 feet wide, and 3 feet deep.
These are the largest dimensions that the space at command will allow,
but it is feared by some that it will be found somewhat confined for
fast going fish. Along the wall on the left are ranged twenty smaller or
table tanks of slate, which vary somewhat in size; the ten largest are
about 5 feet 8 inches long, 2 feet 9 inches wide, and 1 foot 9 inches
deep.
In this Western Arcade will be found all the new inventions in fish
culture--models of hatching, breeding, and rearing establishments,
apparatus for the transporting of fish, ova, models and drawings of
fish-passes and ladders, and representations of the development and
growth of fish. The chief exhibitors are specialists, and are already
well known to our readers. Sir James Gibson Maitland has taken an active
part in the arrangement of this branch, and is himself one of the
principal contributors.
In the north of the Arcade, where it curves toward the Conservatory,
will be shown an enormous collection of examples of stuffed fish,
contributed by many prominent angling societies. In front of these on
the counter will be ranged microscopic preparations of parasites,
etc., and a stand from the Norwich Exhibition of a fauna of fish and
fish-eating birds.
Passing behind the Conservatory and down the Eastern Arcade--in which
will be arranged algæ, sponges, mollusca, star-fish, worms used for
bait, insects which destroy spawn or which serve as food for fish,
etc.--on turning to the left, we find ourselves in the fish market,
which will probably vie with the aquaria on the other side in attracting
popular attention. This model Billingsgate is to be divided into two
parts, the one for the sale of fresh, the other of dried and cured fish.
Next in order come the two long iron sheds appropriated respectively to
life-boats and machinery in motion. Then past the Royal pavilion (the
idea of which was doubtless taken from its prototype at the Paris
Exhibition) to the southern end of the central block, which is shared
by the Netherlands and Newfoundland; just to the north of the former
Belgium has a place.
While the Committee of the Netherlands was one of the earliest formed,
Belgium only came in at the eleventh hour; she will, however, owing
to the zealous activity of Mr. Lenders, the consul in London, send
an important contribution worthy of her interest in the North Sea
fisheries. We ought also to mention that Newfoundland is among those
colonies which have shown great energy, and she may be expected to send
a large collection.
Passing northward we come to Sweden and Norway, with Chili between them.
These two countries were, like the Netherlands, early in preparing to
participate in the Exhibition. Each has had its own committee, which has
been working hard since early in 1882.
Parallel to the Scandinavian section is that devoted to Canada and the
United States, and each will occupy an equal space--ten thousand square
feet.
In the northern Transept will be placed the inland fisheries of the
United Kingdom. At each end of the building is aptly inclosed a basin
formerly standing in the gardens: and over the eastern one will be
erected the dais from which the Queen will formally declare the
Exhibition open.
Shooting out at right angles are the Spanish annex, and the building
shared by India and Ceylon. China and Japan and New South Wales; while
corresponding to those at the western end are the Russian annex, and a
shed allotted to several countries and colonies. The Isle of Man, the
Bahamas, Switzerland, Germany, Hawaii, Italy, and Greece--all find their
space under its roof.
After all the buildings were planned, the Governments of Russia and
Spain declared their intention of participating; and accordingly for
each of these countries a commodious iron building has been specially
erected.
The Spanish collection will be of peculiar interest; it has been
gathered together by a Government vessel ordered round the coast for the
purpose, and taking up contributions at all the seaports as it passed.
Of the countries whose Governments for inscrutable reasons of state show
disfavor and lack of sympathy, Germany is prominent; although by the
active initiative of the London Committee some important contributions
have been secured from private individuals; among them, we are happy to
say, is Mr. Max von dem Borne, who will send his celebrated incubators,
which the English Committee have arranged to exhibit in operation at
their own expense.
Although the Italian Government, like that of Germany, holds aloof,
individuals, especially Dr. Dohrn, of the Naples Zoological Station,
will send contributions of great scientific value.
In the Chinese and Japanese annex, on the east, will be seen a large
collection of specimens (including the gigantic crabs), which have been
collected, to great extent, at the suggestion of Dr. Günther, of the
British Museum.
It is at the same time fortunate and unfortunate that a similar
Fisheries Exhibition is now being held at Yokohama, as many specimens
which have been collected specially for their own use would otherwise be
wanting; and on the other hand, many are held back for their own show.
China, of all foreign countries, was the first to send her goods, which
arrived at the building on the 30th of March, accompanied by native
workmen who are preparing to erect over a basin contiguous to their
annex models of the summer house and bridge with which the willow
pattern plate has made us familiar; while on the basin will float models
of Chinese junks.
Of British colonies, New South Wales will contribute a very interesting
collection placed under the care of the Curator of the Sydney Museum;
and from the Indian Empire will come a large gathering of specimens in
spirits under the superintendence of Dr. Francis Day.
Of great scientific interest are the exhibits, to be placed in two
neighboring sheds, of the Native Guano Company and the Millowners'
Association. The former will show all the patents used for the
purification of the rivers from sewage, and the latter will display in
action their method of rendering innocuous the chemical pollutions which
factories pour into the river.
In the large piece of water in the northern part of the gardens, which
has been deepened on purpose, apparatus in connection with diving will
be seen; and hard by, in a shed, Messrs. Siebe, Gorman & Co. will show
a selection of beautiful minute shells dredged from the bottom of the
Mediterranean.
In the open basins in the gardens will be seen beavers, seals,
sea-lions, waders, and other aquatic birds.
From this preliminary walk round enough has, we think, been seen to show
that the Great International Fisheries Exhibition will prove of interest
alike to the ordinary visitor, to those anxious for the well-being
of fishermen, to fishermen themselves of every degree, and to the
scientific student of ichthyology in all its branches.--_Nature_.
* * * * *
PUPPET SHOWS AMONG THE GREEKS.
The ancients, especially the Greeks, were very fond of theatrical
representations; but, as Mr. Magnin has remarked in his _Origines du
Théâtre Moderne_, public representations were very expensive, and for
that very reason very rare. Moreover, those who were not in a condition
of freedom were excluded from them; and, finally, all cities could not
have a large theater, and provide for the expenses that it carried with
it. It became necessary, then, for every day needs, for all conditions
and for all places, that there should be comedians of an inferior order,
charged with the duty of offering continuously and inexpensively the
emotions of the drama to all classes of inhabitants.
Formerly, as to-day, there were seen wandering from village to village
menageries, puppet shows, fortune tellers, jugglers, and performers of
tricks of all kinds. These prestidigitators even obtained at times such
celebrity that history has preserved their names for us--at least of two
of them, Euclides and Theodosius, to whom statues were erected by their
contemporaries. One of these was put up at Athens in the Theater of
Bacchus, alongside of that of the great writer of tragedy, Æschylus, and
the other at the Theater of the Istiaians, holding in the hand a small
ball. The grammarian Athenæus, who reports these facts in his "Banquet
of the Sages," profits by the occasion to deplore the taste of the
Athenians, who preferred the inventions of mechanics to the culture of
mind and histrions to philosophers. He adds with vexation that Diophites
of Locris passed down to posterity simply because he came one day to
Thebes wearing around his body bladders filled with wine and milk,
and so arranged that he could spurt at will one of these liquids in
apparently drawing it from his mouth. What would Athenæus say if he knew
that it was through him alone that the name of this histrion had come
down to us?
[Illustration: FIG. 1.--THE MARVELOUS STATUE OF CYBELE.]
Philo, of Byzantium, and Heron, of Alexandria, to whom we always have
to have recourse when we desire accurate information as to the mechanic
arts of antiquity, both composed treatises on puppet shows. That of
Philo is lost, but Heron's treatise has been preserved to us, and has
recently been translated in part by Mr. Victor Prou.
According to the Greek engineer, there were several kinds of puppet
shows. The oldest and simplest consisted of a small stationary case,
isolated on every side, in which the stage was closed by doors that
opened automatically several times to exhibit the different tableaux.
The programme of the representation was generally as follows: The first
tableau showed a head, painted on the back of the stage, which moved
its eyes, and lowered and raised them alternately. The door having been
closed, and then opened again, there was seen, instead of the head, a
group of persons. Finally, the stage opened a third time to show a new
group, and this finished the representation. There were, then, only
three movements to be made, that of the doors, that of the eyes, and
that of the change of background.
As such representations were often given on the stages of large
theaters, a method was devised later on of causing the case to start
from the scenes behind which it was bidden from the spectators, and of
moving automatically to the front of the stage, where it exhibited in
succession the different tableaux; after which it returned automatically
behind the scenes. Here is one of the scenes indicated by Heron,
entitled the "Triumph of Bacchus":
The movable case shows, at its upper part, a platform from which arises
a cylindrical temple, the roof of which, supported by six columns, is
conical and surmounted by a figure of Victory with spread wings and
holding a crown in her right hand. In the center of the temple Bacchus
is seen standing, holding a thyrsus in his left hand, and a cup in his
right. At his feet lies a panther. In front of and behind the god, on
the platform of the stage, are two altars provided with combustible
material. Very near the columns, but external to them, there are
bacchantes placed in any posture that may be desired. All being thus
prepared, says Heron, the automatic apparatus is set in motion. The
theater then moves of itself to the spot selected, and there stops. Then
the altar in front of Jupiter becomes lighted, and, at the same time,
milk and water spurt from his thyrsus, while his cup pours wine over the
panther. The four faces of the base become encircled with crowns, and,
to the noise of drums and cymbals, the bacchantes dance round about the
temple. Soon, the noise having ceased, Victory on the top of the temple,
and Bacchus within it, face about. The altar that was behind the god
is now in front of him, and becomes lighted in its turn. Then occurs
another outflow from the thyrsus and cup, and another round of the
bacchantes to the sound of drums and cymbals. The dance being finished,
the theater returns to its former station. Thus ends the apotheosis.
I shall try to briefly indicate the processes which permitted of these
different operations being performed, and which offer a much more
general interest than one might at first sight be led to believe; for
almost all of them had been employed in former times for producing the
illusions to which ancient religions owed their power.
The automatic movement of the case was obtained by means of
counterpoises and two cords wound about horizontal bobbins in such a way
as to produce by their winding up a forward motion in a vertical plane,
and subsequently a backward movement to the starting place. Supposing
the motive cords properly wound around vertical bobbins, instead of a
horizontal one, and we have the half revolution of Bacchus and Victory,
as well as the complete revolution of the bacchantes.
The successive lighting of the two altars, the flow of milk and wine,
and the noise of drums and cymbals were likewise obtained by the aid of
cords moved by counterpoises, and the lengths of which were graduated
in such a way as to open and close orifices, at the proper moment, by
acting through traction on sliding valves which kept them closed.
Pages:
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
6 |
7 |
8 |
9
